HE  PORTLAND 
SURVEY 

ELLWOOD  P.  CUBBRRLEY 


EFFICIENCY     SfiRit 

•PAUL  H.HANL6 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


'TpHE  School  Efficiency  Series  comprises  about 
A  twelve  volumes  by  as  many  educational  experts 
on  Elementary  School  and  Kindergarten,  High 
School,  and  Vocational  Instruction,  Courses  of 
Study,  Organization,  Management  and  Supervision. 
The  series  consists  of  monographs  based  on  the 
report  of  Professor  Hanus  and  his  associates  on  the 
schools  of  New  York  City,  but  the  controlling  ideas 
are  applicable  as  well  in  one  public  school  system  \ 
as  in  another. 

Among  the  authors  contributing  to  these  volumes  I 
are  included  Professor  Paul  H.  Hanus,  Professor  of 
Education,  Harvard  University,  who  is  also  general 
editor  of  the  whole  series;  Dr.  Frank  P.  Bachman, 
General  Education  Board;  Dr.  Edward  C.  Elliott, 
Director  of  the  School  of  Education,  University  of 
Wisconsin;  Dr.  Herman  Schneider,  Dean  of  the  Col-  ! 
lege  of  Engineering,  University  of  Cincinnati;  Dr. 
Frank  W.  Ballou,  Director  of  Promotion  and  Educa-  I 
tional  Measurement,  Boston  Public  Schools;  Dr. 
Calvin  O.  Davis,  Assistant  Professor  of  Education, 
University  of  Michigan;  Dr.  Frank  V.  Thompson,  | 
Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Boston;  Dr. 
Henry  H.  Goddard,  Director  Department  of  Psycho- 
logical Research,  New  Jersey  Training  School  for 
Feeble-Minded  Boys  and  Girls;  Mr.  Stuart  A.  Cour- 
tis, Supervisor  of  Educational  Research  in  the  Public 
Schools,  Detroit;  Dr.  Frank  M.  McMurry,  Professor 
of  Elementary  Education,  Teachers  College,  Colum- 
bia University;  Dr.  Ernest  C.  Moore,  Professor  of 
Education,  Harvard  University;  Dr.  Ellwood  P. 
Cubberley,  Professor  of  Education,  Leland  Stanford 
Junior  University. 

5 

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SCHOOL    EFFICIENCY    SERIES 


The   Portland   Survey 


SCHOOL      EFFICIENCY      SERIES 
Edited  by  PAUL  H.  HANUS 

The  Portland  Survey 

A  textbook  on  city  school  admin- 
istration based  on  a  concrete  study 

By  ELLWOOD   P.  CUBBERLEY 

PROFESSOR   OF   EDUCATION,    LELANU 
STANFORD   JUNIOR    UNIVERSITY 

Assisted  by  FLETCHER  B.  DRESSLAR,  EDWARD 
C.  ELLIOTT,  J.  H.  FRANCIS,  FRANK  E.  SPAULDJNG 
LEWIS  M.  TERMAN,  and  WILLIAM  R.  TANNER 


YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,  NEW  YORK. 

WORLD  BOOK  COMPANY 
1916 


Copyright,  1915,  by  World  Book  Company 

All  rights  reserved 

SES:  CPS  —  2 


Ed.  /Psych. 
Library 

LA, 
354 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE1 

report  of  Professor  Cubberley  and  his  associates 
A  on  their  survey  of  the  Portland  (Oregon)  school  sys- 
tem is  a  document  that  will  be  useful  for  a  long  time  to  lay 
and  professional  students  of  school  administration.  The 
report  is  noteworthy  both  for  its  comprehensive  scope  and 
its  illuminating  discussions.  The  fundamental  problems 
which  not  only  the  Portland  school  system  but  every  school 
system  must  endeavor  to  solve  in  seeking  to  adapt  itself  pro- 
gressively to  the  educational  needs  of  the  community  which 
it  serves  are  treated  in  this  report  with  the  insight  and  out- 
look of  professional  men  who  observe  carefully  and  state 
facts  and  conclusions  with  directness  and  force. 

The  Portland  report,  as  a  report  prepared  for  the  people 
of  Portland  and  published  by  them,  it  seemed  to  me,  could 
be  accessible  to  relatively  few  persons  among  those  who 
might  wish  to  study  it.  Accordingly,  I  suggested  to  Pro- 
fessor Cubberley  that  it  be  published  in  book  form.  At  the 
same  time,  I  was  authorized  by  the  World  Book  Company 
to  say  that  it  would  be  happy  to  publish  the  report  as  a  vol- 
ume of  the  School  Efficiency  Series.  Professor  Cubberley 
accepted  my  suggestion,  and  I  now  take  pleasure  in  present- 
ing this  volume,  which  consists  of  the  Portland  report  un- 
changed in  substance  save  in  a  few  unimportant  particulars, 
as  a  permanent  contribution  to  the  important  literature  of 
school  administration  in  this  country. 

Naturally  I  cannot  assume  any  responsibility  for  the 
views  expressed  in  the  book,  since  I  had  no  share  in  making 

1  Professor  Hanus  has  been  kind  enough  to  submit  his  Editor's  Preface 
to  me,  and  I  think  the  objection  which  he  makes  in  the  last  paragraph  is 
well  taken.  Were  I  writing  Chapter  II  now,  my  recommendations  would  be 
in  accord  with  Professor  Hanus'  point  of  view.  —  E.  P.  C. 


viii  Editor's  Preface 

the  report  of  which  it  consists.  Nevertheless,  I  am  glad  to 
say  that  I  heartily  agree  with  most  of  those  views.  On 
one  point,  however,  my  disagreement  is  so  complete  that  I 
take  the  liberty  of  referring  to  it.  I  cannot  agree  that  the 
proper  organization  and  administration  of  a  school  system 
requires  any  standing  committees  of  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion. There  is  abundant  evidence  that  such  committees 
tend  to  obstruct  and  often  do  obstruct  the  performance  of 
the  duties  entrusted  to  the  Board  and  also  of  the  duties 
that  are  or  should  be  entrusted  to  its  officers  —  particularly 
the  latter. 

PAUL  H.  HANUS. 
HARVARD  UNIVERSITY. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 
EDITOR'S  PREFACE vii 

I.  ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

CHAPTER 

I.  THE  LEGAL  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  PORTLAND  SCHOOL 

DISTRICT 3 

State  origin  of  schools  —  The  school  district  and  the  municipality  — 
Portland  a  first-class  district  —  Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  state 
control  —  Need  of  a  new  city  school  law 

II.  THE  ADMINISTRATIVE  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  PORTLAND 

SCHOOL  DISTRICT 10 

Coordination  of  authorities  —  The  board  organization  —  Business  de- 
partment organization  —  Educational  department  organization  — • 
Board  meetings  —  The  board  does  too  much  —  Types  of  business  — 
This  condition  an  inheritance  —  Bad  effects  of  the  sysjtem  —  The  way 
out  —  The  supervision  of  instruction  —  Business  department  —  Build- 
ing department  —  The  proper  functions  of  the  board  —  Good  corpo- 
rate management 

III.  THE  SYSTEM  OF  SUPERVISION 34 

Sources  and  methods  of  work  —  Weakness  of  the  system  found  — 
Such  conditions  not  inherent  —  Full  efficiency  not  realized  —  Ultimate 
reasons  for  the  condition  —  Characteristics  of  a  good  supervisory  or- 
ganization —  Rules  and  regulations  and  the  system  —  Concrete  illus- 
trations: board  control  —  Concrete  illustrations:  supervisory  control 
—  Responsibility  for  the  condition  —  Needed  changes;  recommenda- 
tions 

IV.  THE  SELECTION  AND  TENURE  OF  TEACHERS    ....      53 

1.  The  selection  of  teachers:   Recruitment  and  training  —  Education 
of  teachers  employed  —  The  training  courses  for  teachers  —  Common 
defects  of  such  courses  —  Training  vs.  attracting  teachers  —  The  super- 
intendent and  the  employment  of  teachers  —  The  effect  of  board  con- 
trol —  Good  rules  of  action;  recommendations  relating  to  employment 

2.  The  tenure  of  teachers:  The  new  permanent-tenure  law  —  A  middle- 
ground  position  —  Right  principles  of  action  relating  to  tenure 

V.  THE  SALARIES  OF  TEACHERS 75 

Comparative  salary  schedules  —  The  Portland  salaries  —  A  uniform 
salary  schedule  —  Types  of  teachers  found  —  The  Portland  teaching 
force  —  Payments  based  on  merit  and  efficiency;  principles  of  action 


Contents 


n.    INSTRUCTIONAL  NEEDS 
CHAPTER  PAGE 

VI.  THE  SOCIAL  AND  ECONOMIC  POSITION  OF  PORTLAND  .      91 

Sources  of  information  —  Cities  selected  for  comparison  —  Size  and 
rate  of  growth  —  Character  of  the  population  —  Preponderance  of 
males  —  Peculiar  age  distribution  —  Percentage  of  children  —  Busi- 
ness interests  of  the  city  —  Wealth  of  the  city  —  Cost  for  city  main- 
tenance —  Rank  of  Portland  in  city  expenditures 

VTI.  THE  EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  OF  SUCH  A  CITY  AS  PORTLAND    112 

General  character  of  the  city  —  Changes  in  our  conception  of  education 

—  Significance  of  the  change  —  These  new  conceptions  applied: 

1.  The  elementary  school  subjects:  Tool  subjects  —  Content  subjects 

—  Science  —  Individual  differences  —  Other  features 

2.  Secondary  education:    College-preparatory  subjects  —  Technical 
courses  —  Commercial  and  agricultural  high  schools 

3.  Public-school  extension:  Portland's  special  educational  opportunity 

—  Its  educational  offering 

VHL  THE  PRESENT  SYSTEM  OF  ELEMENTARY  AND  SECOND- 
ARY INSTRUCTION     124 

1.  Principle  on  which  present  practice  is  based:  A  system  for  which 
no  one  is  responsible  —  Purpose  of  the  study  constructive  —  What  is 
a  living  curriculum?  —  What  is  a  dead  curriculum?  —  The  system  in 
operation  —  The  school  for  the  deaf  —  Mechanical  uniformity  every- 
where —  Prescriptions  of  the  course  of  study  illustrated  —  Some  char- 
acteristics of  the  course 

2.  The  Portland  elementary  curriculum 

3.  The  subject-matter  further  analyzed:    No  adequate  provision  for 
the  effective  education  of  a  large  portion  of  the  children  —  Grammar 
•  —  Composition  —  Abstract    arithmetic  —  Technical    United    States 
history  —  Nature  study 

4.  The  system  of  promotional  examinations:  Nature  of  examinations 
— Distorted  efforts — Time  spent  unprofitably — What  examinations  do 

5.  The  classroom  instruction:  Work  both  good  and  poor  —  Grammar- 
grade  work  inferior  to  primary  —  Reading  and  composition  poor  — 
Penmanship  poor  and  careless  —  Geography  abstract  and  bookish  — 
History  dry  and  dull  —  Arithmetic  and  grammar  the  best  taught 

6.  Deadening  effect  of  the  system:    On  teachers  —  On  pupils  —  On 
the  principals  —  Why  primary  work  is  better 

7.  Other  elementary  school  needs:    Dearth  of  teaching  material  — 
Books  should  be  furnished  —  Classes  of  commendable  size  —  Disci- 
pline 

8.  The  curricula  of  the  secondary  school:   Extent  and  character  of 
provisions  made  —  Increase  in  enrollment  —  Character  of  instruction 

—  The  high  school  courses  of  study  —  Teaching  rather  than  educat- 
ing youth  —  Uniformity  throughout  —  This  a  barrier  to  progress  — 
Cost  of  the  examination  system 

9.  Summary  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  present  system  of  ele- 
mentary and  secondary  education 


Contents  xi 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

IX.  OUTLINE  OF  AN  EDUCATIONAL  PROGRAM  ADAPTED  TO 

LOCAL  EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS 176 

1.  Point  of  view  and  purpose  in  this  study:  Facing  the  future  —  Three 
fundamental  working  principles  —  What  is  Portland's  educational 
problem?  —  Character  of  the  program  projected  —  The  first  step 

2.  Seven  factors  determining  the  grouping  of  children 

3.  The  significance  of  age  and  over  age:  Children  under  six  educable  — 
How  wide  an  age-range  advantageous  —  Eleven  per  cent  of  pupils  need 
reclassification  —  Some  causes  of  over  age  —  Over  age  in  the  Portland 
schools  —  Necessary  treatment  and  study 

4.  The  other  factors,  determining  grouping:  Length  of  instruction  — 
To  fit  for  usefulness  —  Capacity  and  interests  —  The  non-English- 
speaking  child  —  Abnormal  and  subnormal  children  —  Sex  as  an  influ- 
ence 

5.  Four  main  groups  or  types  of  schools: 

(1)  The  kindergarten  —  Cost  —  Should  be  provided  in  time 

(2)  Elementary  schools  —  Subjects  to  be  included  —  Desirable 
and  essential  distinguished 

(3)  Intermediate  schools  —  This  stage  calls  for  differentiations  — 
Literary  and  pre- vocational  courses  —  Work  adapted  to  individual 
needs,  capacities,  and  interests 

(4)  The  secondary  school  —  Preparatory  and  vocational  courses 
of  wide  range  —  Courses  must  be  flexible  —  Tests  for  promotions 

—  Demands  of  such  a  flexible  plan 

6.  Summary  of  recommendations 

X.  THE  PRESENT  OFFERING  OF  THE  SCHOOL  DISTRICT  IN 

VOCATIONAL  STUDIES,  WITH  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  IM- 
PROVEMENTS   224 

1.  Prominent  shortcomings  in  the  elementary  school  work 

2.  The  vocational  studies  in  the  elementary  school  course 

(1)  Primary  manual  arts  —  Nature  of  the  work 

(2)  Manual  training  —  Commendable  features  of  the  work  — 
Defects  observed  —  Improvements  suggested 

(3)  Sewing  —  Commendable  features  —  Defects  —  Suggestions 

(4)  Cookery  —  Its  absence  a  mistake  —  Suggestions 

(5)  Drawing  —  The  present  course  —  Changes  suggested 

(6)  Music  —  Defects  of  the  work  —  Suggestions 

(7)  School  gardening  —  Why  the  schools  should  assume  this  work 

—  Need  for  a  supervisor  —  Importance  for  Portland 

3.  The  vocational  studies  in  the  secondary  schools:  Characteristics  of 
the  work  in  the  high  schools 

(1)  The  commercial  course  —  Traditional  nature  —  Criticisms  of 
the  work  done  —  Suggestions  for  a  reconstruction  of  the  work  in 
the  schools 

(2)  The  work  in  drawing  —  Defects  —  Lack  of  proper  provision 
for  —  Suggestions  for  the  improvement  and  expansion  of  the  work 

(3)  Shop  equipment  and  its  distribution  —  The  special  vs.  the 
cosmopolitan  high  school 

(4)  Domestic  art  —  Good  work  done 

(5)  Domestic  science  —  Good  work  in  cooking  —  Additions 


xii  Contents 

CHAPTEK  PAGE 

4.  The  School  of  Trades:   Strength  and  defects  of  the  work  done  — 
Recommendations  for  its  improvement 

5.  An  agricultural  high  school  recommended 

6.  Summary  and  recommendations 

XI.  NEEDED  REORGANIZATIONS  AND  EXPANSIONS  OF  THE 

SCHOOL  SYSTEM 250 

1.  A  fundamental  reorganization  needed 

(1)  Kindergartens  —  Relation  to  first-grade  work 

(2)  Elementary  schools  —  The  prime  purpose  during  the  first  six 
years 

(3)  Intermediate  schools  —  Character  —  Location  —  Buildings — 
Cost  —  Purposes  —  Advantages  —  Teachers  —  Opposition  to  — 
Courses  of  study 

(4)  High  schools  —  Enlarged  scope 

2.  Types  of  additional  schools  needed 

(i)  The  ungraded  room  —  Purposes  —  Value 

(a)  Truant  schools  —  Classes  intended  for  —  Advantages  of  — 

Graduation  to  a  central  vocational  school 

8)  Vacation  schools  —  Types  of  —  Purposes 
)  Night  schools;   school  entertainments  —  The  school  a  center 
—  Recommendations  —  The  night  high  schools 

(5)  Extension   of  the   school  time  —  Longer  days  —  Saturday 
mornings  for  vocational  work 

(6)  Special  art  schools 

(7)  Neighborhood  or  district  schools  —  Scope  of  such  schools  — 
Work  and  purposes 

(8)  A  school  for  janitors 

3.  Summary  of  recommendations 


III.    BUILDINGS  AND  HEALTH 
XH.  THE  BUILDING  AND  SITES  PROBLEM     283 

Portland's  building  problem  —  Rapid  increase  in  school  population  — 
Recent  increase  in  building  outlays  —  Shifting  of  population  —  Prob- 
able future  needs  —  Size  of  school  lots  —  Larger  playgrounds  needed 
—  The  high  schools  —  The  best  buildings  —  The  safest  buildings  — 
The  most  economical  buildings  —  Paying  for  buildings  by  tax  or  by 
bonding 

XIII.  THE  SCHOOL  PLANT 304 

Construction  units  —  The  schoolhouse  site  —  Noisy  streets  —  Orien- 
tation of  buildings  —  East  and  west  lighting  —  Unilateral  lighting  — 
Windows  —  Ribbed  and  frosted  glass  —  Transoms  —  Size  of  class- 
rooms —  Height  of  classrooms  —  Floors  —  Desks  —  Blackboards  — 
Stair  banisters  —  Assembly  rooms  —  Floating  ceilings  —  Open-air 
schools  —  Temperature  of  rooms  —  Hot-air  furnaces  —  Ventilation  of 
rooms  and  of  toilets  —  Fresh-air  intakes  —  Registers  —  Toilets  and 
urinals  —  Baths  —  Vacuum  cleaners  —  Dust  cloths  —  Drinking  foun- 
tains —  Slates  —  Janitor  service  —  Miscellaneous  recommendations  — 
Advisory  educational  committee  on  buildings 


Contents  xiii 

CHAPTER  PACK 

XIV.  THE  SYSTEM  OF  HEALTH  SUPERVISION 339 

1.  The  system  of  medical  inspection:  Two  types  of  school  health  serv- 
ice —  Main  features  of  the  Portland  system  —  Nature  of  the  exami- 
nations given 

2.  Defects  of  the  system:  Results  secured  —  Records  and  reports  — 
Limited  scope  of  the  work 

3.  Essential  features  of  a  department  of  health  supervision  for  a'city  the 
size  of  Portland:    Control  —  The  force  needed  —  Expense  —  Chief 
health  director  —  Offices  and  equipment  —  Dental  clinic  —  Medical 
clinic  —  School  nurses  —  The  teachers'  part  in  health  supervision 

4.  Open-air  schools 

5.  School  feeding 

6.  The  health  of  the  teaching  corps 

7.  Hygiene  teaching 

8.  Physical  training  and  playground  instruction 

9.  The  hygiene  of  instruction:  Daily  school  programs 

10.  Special  schools  and  classes  needed:   Deaf  — Blind  or  crippled  — 
Stammerers  —  Backward      children  —  Border-line      cases  —  Feeble- 
minded —  Truants  and  incorrigibles  —  Misfits 

n.  Summary  of  recommendations 

IV.    ATTENDANCE,  RECORDS,  AND  COSTS 

XV.  SCHOOL  CENSUS  AND  ATTENDANCE 375 

1.  Census:   General  —  Legal  provisions  concerning  —  Plan  of  taking 

—  Instructions  to  enumerators  —  Method  of  enumeration  —  Cost  and 
report  —  Census  data  —  Critical  statement  —  Need  of  a  permanent 
and  continuous  census  —  Enumerators  —  Cost  —  Report  of  census 
returns 

2.  Compulsory  education:    Legal  provisions  concerning  —  Enforce- 
ment of  school  attendance  —  Records  and  reports  —  Truant  officer's 
records  —  Critical  comment  —  Recommendations 

XVI.  RECORDS  AND  REPORTS 392 

Record  of  board  proceedings  —  The  annual  report  —  Contents  of  an- 
nual report  —  Functions  of  annual  report  —  Record  forms  and  blanks  — 
Fundamental  educational  records  needed  —  Financial  records  —  Rec- 
ommendation —  Report  and  record  forms  in  use 

XVII.  COST  OF  THE  SYSTEM  OF  EDUCATION 404 

A  fundamental  assumption  as  to  Portland's  attitude  toward  the  cost  of 
the  school  system: 

1 .  Relative  rank  of  the  school  district  in  school  expenditures  —  Com- 
parative per  capita  costs  —  Children  in  the  population  —  Cost  per  adult 
male  —  Cost  per  pupil  educated  —  Comparisons  for  elementary  schools 

—  For  secondary  schools  —  The  bearing  of  small  classes  —  Reasonable 
per  capita  costs 

2.  Real  wealth  behind  each  dollar  spent  for  schools  —  Comparative 
rates  of  tax  required  for  school  maintenance  —  Portland's  educational 
opportunity  —  Present  condition  of  Portland's  school  system,  and  its 
needs 


xiv  Contents 

APPENDICES 

PAGE 

A.  A  SUGGESTED  LAW  FOR  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  PORT- 

LAND SCHOOL  DISTRICT 421 

B.  i.  REPORT  OF  SURVEY  COMMITTEE 426 

2.  DIRECTOR'S  LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 428 

INDEX 431 


PART   I 

Organization  and  Administration 


THE    PORTLAND    SURVEY 


CHAPTER   I1 

THE   LEGAL   ORGANIZATION    OF   THE 
PORTLAND    SCHOOL    DISTRICT 

STATE   ORIGIN   OF   SCHOOLS 

SCHOOL  District  No.  i,  of  Multnomah  County,  Oregon, 
commonly  known  as  the  Portland  School  District,  is  a 
state,  and  not  a  city,  creation  and  organization.  Unlike  the 
street  and  fire  departments,  or  the  park  board,  which  are 
provided  for  in  the  city  charter  and  are  distinctively  city  in- 
stitutions, the  school  department  owes  its  origin  to  the  state 
constitutional  mandate  and  to  the  state's  laws  relating  to 
education.  The  first  provisional  government  for  the  Ore- 
gon country  (1845)  declared  that  "schools  and  means  of 
education  should  be  encouraged,"  and  the  constitution  on 
which  the  territory  entered  the  Union,  framed  in  1857, 
directed  that  "  the  Legislative  Assembly  shall  provide  by  law 
for  the  establishment  of  a  uniform  and  general  system  of 
common  schools"  for  the  state.  To  assist  in  the  maintenance 
of  such  a  state  school  system  a  state  school  fund  was  created, 
and  its  use  and  method  of  distribution  were  provided  for  in 
the  new  constitution. 

Under  this  authority  the  legislature  has  since  created  a 
state  school  system.  A  State  Superintendent  of  Public  In- 
struction and  a  State  Board  of  Education  have  been  pro- 
vided for,  to  look  after  the  interests  of  the  state  in  the 

1  Chapters  I  to  VII  inclusive  were  written  by  Professor  Ellwood  P.  Cub- 
berley,  Director  of  the  Survey.  —  EDITOR. 

3 


4  The  Portland  Survey 

matter  of  education;  a  body  of  School  Law,  controlling 
the  school  system  in  detail,  has  since  been  gradually 
evolved,  and  county  school  superintendents  and  district 
school  directors  have  been  created,  to  see  that  the  state  pur- 
pose is  carried  out  locally. 


THE   SCHOOL   DISTRICT  AND   THE   MUNICIPALITY 

The  school  district  has  been  made  the  unit  of  educational 
organization  by  the  state,  and  the  districts  have  been  declared 
by  law  to  be  "  bodies  corporate,  competent  to  transact  all 
business  coming  under  their  jurisdiction."  The  boundaries 
of  the  school  districts  are  controlled  by  a  county  board, 
known  as  the  district  boundary  board,  and  the  distinct  or- 
ganization of  a  school  district  is  shown  by  the  provision  that 
its  boundaries  may  be  different  from  those  of  a  municipal- 
ity of  which  it  forms  a  part,  and  that  it  may  even  lie  in  two 
counties.  This  difference  for  Portland  is  well  shown  by 
Figure  i,  which  gives  the  city  and  school-district  boundary 
lines  as  they  were  early  in  1913.  Even  when  the  boundaries 
of  a  school  district  are  one  and  the  same  as  those  of  a  muni- 
cipal corporation,  the  intent  of  the  law,  and  the  decisions  of 
the  courts  in  a  number  of  states,  are  that  the  school  district 
is  a  separate  and  distinct  corporation  from  the  municipality, 
created  for  a  different  purpose.  The  municipality  exists 
largely  for  local  ends:  the  school  district  exists  largely 
for  the  carrying  out  of  a  state  purpose. 

PORTLAND  A  FIRST-CLASS  DISTRICT 

In  carrying  out  this  state  purpose  the  state  of  Oregon, 
for  convenience  in  granting  powers,  has  classified  the  dif- 
ferent school  districts  of  the  state  into  three  classes.  The 
first  class,  to  which  Portland  belongs,  comprises  all  school 
districts  in  the  state  having  1000  or  more  children  of  school- 
census  age  (4  to  20  years).  Such  districts,  largely  because 
of  their  size  and  the  larger  volume  of  their  business,  are 


Organization  of  School  District 


allowed  to  elect  five  school  directors,  instead  of  the  three 
provided  for  other  districts;  may  appoint  a  clerk,  outside 
of  their  own  membership;  may  employ  a  superintendent  of 
schools ;  may  prescribe  their  own  courses  of  study ;  may  ex- 


MAPOF 

PORTLAND 

SHOWING 

BOUNDARIES 

CITY  ————— 


.SCHOOL  DISTRICT- 

SCHOOLS    • 


FIG.  i.    CITY  AND  SCHOOL-DISTRICT  BOUNDARIES  COMPARED 

amine  their  own  teachers;  may  provide  evening  schools; 
and  may  create  an  indebtedness.  In  1911  all  school  districts 
having  10,000  or  more  school  children  were  permitted  to 
create  a  teachers'  retirement  fund,  and  in  1913  all  school 
districts  having  20,000  or  more  school  children  were  per- 
mitted to  establish  and  maintain  many  types  of  special 
schools,  and  to  adopt  their  own  textbooks. 


6  The  Portland  Survey 

All  these  powers  come  from  the  state  and  not  from  the 
city,  and  all  of  them  apply  to  any  school  district  in  the  state 
of  the  same  class  or  size.  The  district  is  numbered  and 
takes  its  legal  name  from  the  county  and  state  organiza- 
tion ;  its  powers  all  come  from  the  state ;  it  could  be  changed 
in  form  or  purpose  at  any  time  by  the  state,  and  it  exists 
primarily  for  the  carrying  out  of  a  purpose  which  our 
American  states  long  ago  decided  to  be  in  the  interests  of 
the  state.  Whatever  the  state  decides  to  be  wise,  in  the  mat- 
ter of  public  education,  it  can  thus  order  the  Portland  school 
district  to  do  or  to  provide.  The  provision  of  education  for 
its  children  is  thus  not  left  to  local  desire  or  local  initiative, 
as  is  the  case  with  street  lights  or  sidewalks,  but  is  required 
by  the  state  in  the  exercise  of  its  inherent  right  of  preserva- 
tion and  improvement. 

ADVANTAGES   AND   DISADVANTAGES   OF   STATE   CONTROL 

This  control  has  its  disadvantages  as  well  as  its  advantages. 
It  is  much  more  likely  that  Portland  will  desire  to  advance 
more  rapidly  than  the  state,  in  extending  its  educational 
system,  than  that  the  state  will  outstrip  Portland.  This 
means  that,  from  time  to  time,  Portland  must  secure  the  per- 
mission of  the  legislature  of  the  state  before  it  can  make 
much-needed  educational  advancement.  For  example,  until 
the  present  time  the  Portland  school  district  has  been  com- 
pelled to  use  the  uniform  state  series  of  textbooks  in  its  ele- 
mentary schools,  though  these  were  adopted  with  the  needs 
of  the  rural  schools  in  view  and  were,  in  the  judgment  of  the 
members  of  the  Survey  staff,  in  a  number  of  cases  wholly 
unsuited  to  the  needs  of  any  modern  educational  system. 
It  would  be  hard  to  conceive  of  any  city  with  a  modern  edu- 
cational organization  using  such  books  as  were  forced  on 
the  city  by  the  state.  Another  illustration  is  the  retention, 
in  a  city  of  250,000  inhabitants,  of  the  old,  outgrown  sys- 
tem, in  many  states  entirely  abandoned,  of  holding  an  annual 
meeting  of  taxpayers  of  the  school  district  to  levy  the  an- 


Organization  of  School  District  7 

nual  school  tax  and  to  make  needed  appropriations  for  the 
schools.  The  only  thing  the  meeting  could  do  with  any 
safety  would  be  to  follow  the  judgment  of  the  directors,  and 
if  this  is  to  be  done  there  is  no  wisdom  in  holding  the  meet- 
ing. We  were  told  that  the  tax  is  frequently  voted  by  a  mere 
handful  of  citizens.  Such  a  situation  is  fraught  with  con- 
stant danger.  If,  for  any  cause,  antagonisms  should  arise, 
it  would  be  easily  possible  for  a  very  few  people  to  appear 
quietly  and  defeat  the  tax,  and  thus  imperil  the  work  of  the 
schools  for  a  year  to  come.  A  city  the  size  of  Portland 
should  be  given  legislative  permission  to  abandon  this  out- 
grown country-school  provision,  and  to  substitute  instead  a 
modern  method  for  levying  the  school  taxes. 

The  state  oversight  and  control  has  its  advantages  and 
disadvantages,  also,  in  that  it  permits  interested  parties  to 
appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  elected  representatives  of 
the  school  district  and  secure  legislation  of  a  kind  which 
suits  them.  An  illustration  on  the  good  side  would  be  laws 
compelling  the  board  of  school  directors  of  the  district  to 
establish  vacation  schools,  to  introduce  instruction  in  do- 
mestic science,  to  provide  proper  playground  facilities,  or 
to  establish  proper  sanitary  conditions  and  health  supervi- 
sion. A  good  illustration  on  the  other  side  is  the  1913  Hfe- 
tenure-of-teachers  bill,  which  is  considered  more  in  detail 
in  Chapter  IV,  and  which  was  secured  from  an  unthink- 
ing legislature  by  representatives  of  the  elementary  teachers 
of  the  city.  Probably  no  legislation  has  ever  been  enacted 
in  the  history  of  the  Portland  school  district  which  is  more 
calculated  ultimately  to  destroy  the  efficiency  of  the  school 
system. 

NEED   OF   A   NEW    CITY   SCHOOL   LAW 

The  legal  organization  surrounding  the  Portland  school 
district  is  in  part  a  village  organization,  and  the  district 
needs  a  new  educational  charter.  This  could  be  secured  in 
the  form  of  a  general  law,  applicable  to  any  city  in  the  state 
having  20,000  or  more  school  children.  The  method  of 


8  The  Portland  Survey 

election,  the  size,  and  the  organization  of  the  Board  of  School 
Directors  are  good  so  far  as  they  provide  for  a  continuing 
body  and  permit  a  continuing  educational  policy,  and  had 
best  remain  as  they  are.  The  law  should  in  addition  provide 
for  a  good  modern  educational  organization  for  such  a  city, 
and  should  specify  the  main  powers  of  the  board,  the  Super- 
intendent of  Schools,  the  Superintendent  of  Properties,  and 
the  Clerk  or  Secretary.  Certain  powers  and  duties  should 
be  guaranteed  to  each,  and  each  should  be  safeguarded  in 
the  exercise  of  them  by  law.  The  right  of  the  district  to 
make  its  own  courses  of  study,  to  adopt  its  own  textbooks, 
to  set  its  own  requirements  for  entering  the  teaching  serv- 
ice, to  contract  with  its  own  teachers,  and  to  establish  such 
schools  and  such  types  of  educational  activity  as  seem 
needed,  should  be  included  in  the  law  as  a  matter  of  course. 
The  right  to  determine  the  rate  or  the  amount  of  school 
taxes  to  be  levied  up  to  certain  maxima  for  buildings,  equip- 
ment, and  annual  maintenance,  ought  to  be  given  to  the 
Board  of  School  Directors  alone,  with  the  further  right  to 
submit  the  question  to  a  vote  of  the  people  if,  in  their  judg- 
ment, still  larger  sums  are  needed  to  meet  emergencies  or 
special  educational  needs. 

In  the  Appendix  to  this  Report 1  a  suggested  state  law 
for  the  reorganization  of  the  Portland  school  district  is 
given.  This  proposed  law  is  based  in  part  on  the  present 
laws  now  in  force,  and  in  part  on  the  best  experience  of  those 
American  cities  which  have  recently  secured  a  good  adminis- 
trative law  for  the  management  of  their  schools. 

While  the  Portland  school  district  thus  has  a  distinct 
legal  organization,  separate  from  the  municipality  of  which 
it  forms  a  part,  and  derives  its  powers  from  the  state  rather 
than  from  the  city,  the  schools  are  nevertheless  city  schools, 
and  should  answer  primarily  the  city's  needs.  That  educa- 
tion which  is  best  suited  to  the  needs  of  such  a  city  will  best 
answer  the  state  purpose  in  requiring  the  maintenance  of 
schools.  The  character  of  the  population  of  Portland,  the 
1  See  page  419. 


Organization  of  School  District  9 

social  and  educational  demands  of  its  people,  its  actual  and 
per  capita  wealth,  and  the  industrial  and  commercial  needs 
of  the  present  and  future  city,  all  serve  to  modify  the  char- 
acter of  the  school  system  which  should  be  maintained  and 
the  type  or  types  of  education  which  should  be  provided. 
As  the  city  grows  in  size  and  its  social  and  educational  prob- 
lems increase  in  complexity,  the  state  should  grant  increas- 
ing liberty  to  the  city  to  enable  it  to  meet  its  peculiar  educa- 
tional needs.  What  the  state  should  be  primarily  interested 
in  is  seeing  that  certain  minimum  standards  are  met, 
not  in  limiting  new  efforts  of  communities.  A  too  rigid 
interpretation  of  the  old  constitutional  clause  providing  for 
"  a  uniform  and  general  system  of  schools  "  for  the  state, 
or  a  too  great  interference  by  the  legislature  in  matters 
largely  local  by  nature,  can  in  part  defeat  the  very  object 
for  which  the  educational  system  was  established.  In  the 
case  of  Portland,  the  legislature  should  provide  the  city  with 
a  legal  organization  suited  to  modern  needs,  after  some 
such  a  plan  as  is  suggested  in  Appendix  A,  and  should 
then  refuse  to  interfere  except  in  matters  of  fundamental 
importance. 


CHAPTER   II 

THE  ADMINISTRATIVE  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE 
PORTLAND  SCHOOL  DISTRICT 

COORDINATION   OF  AUTHORITIES 

THE  Portland  school  district  thus  exists  in  obedience  to 
state  law,  and  its  form  and  its  powers  are  alike  de- 
rived from  the  state.  To  carry  out  this  state  purpose  of 
education  for  such  children  as  live  within  the  boundaries  of 
the  Portland  school  district,  the  state  has  provided  for  the 
election,  by  the  property  holders  of  the  school  district,  of  a 
board  of  five  school  directors.  One  new  member  is  elected 
each  year,  for  a  five-year  term,  and  on  a  day  set  by  law  for 
the  annual  school  meeting  of  the  district.  The  main  powers 
of  the  board  so  elected  come  from  the  legislature,  and  have 
been  formulated  in  the  school  law  of  the  state.  The  State 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  and  the  County  Super- 
intendent of  Schools  interpret  this  law,  and  apportion  to  the 
district  its  proportionate  share  of  the  income  from  the  state 
permanent  school  fund  and  from  the  county  school  tax. 
The  County  Boundary  Board  regulates  the  boundaries  of  the 
school  district,  as  for  all  other  districts  within  the  county. 
The  County  Superintendent  of  Schools  sits  as  a  member  of 
the  district  (city)  Board  of  Examiners,  for  the  examination 
and  certification  of  all  teachers  for  the  school  district. 


THE  BOARD  ORGANIZATION 

The  Board  of  School  Directors  so  elected  is  charged  with 
the  maintenance  of  the  schools  required  by  law  within  the 
district.  In  carrying  out  this  purpose  they  not  only  meet  as 


The  Administrative  Organization  n 

a  body,  but  have  also  subdivided  themselves  into  eight  com- 
mittees for  further  work.  The  work  of  maintaining  the 
schools  is  also  further  organized  under  two  main  depart- 
ments, practically  independent  of  one  another  —  one  for  the 
business  work,  under  the  School  Clerk,  and  one  for  the  edu- 
cational work,  under  the  Superintendent  of  Schools.  These 
relationships  are  well  shown  in  Figure  i. 

An  examination  of  this  diagram,  and  a  comparison  of  it 
with  Figure  3,  on  page  28,  showing  a  desirable  reor- 
ganization, will  prove  both  interesting  and  instructive.  In 
Figure  2  the  independence  of  the  two  main  administrative 
departments,  as  well  as  the  lack  of  coordination  of  the  dif- 
ferent city  departments  working  at  the  educational  prob- 
lem, is  seen;  in  Figure  3  the  unified  educational  organiza- 
tion is  the  prominent  feature. 


Business  Department  Organization 

The  business  department,  as  organized  under  the  School 
Clerk,  is  further  subdivided  as  follows: 

SCHOOL  CLERK 

1.  Secretary 

2.  Truant  officer 

3.  Cashier 

a.  Bookkeeper 

b.  Assistant  bookkeeper 

c.  Checking  clerk 

d.  Head  stenographer 

e.  Assistant  stenographer 

f.  Filing  clerk 

g.  Telephone  operator 

4.  Purchasing  agent 

a.  Storekeeper 

b.  Delivery  man 


12 


The  Portland  Survey 


<i 

I 


(X, 


The  Administrative  Organization  13 

5.  Superintendent  of  properties 

a.  Stenographer 

b.  Office  boy 

c.  Chief  draftsman 

1 i )  Two  draftsmen 

(2)  Structural  engineer 

(3)  Heating  and  ventilating  engineer 

d.  Inspector  of  grounds  and  buildings 

(1)  Carpenter  foreman 

(2)  Mechanics 

e.  Supervisor  of  electrical  and  mechanical  plant 

1 i )  Plumbers 

(2)  Mechanics 

6.  Janitors 

This  department  seemed  well  organized  and  quite  effi- 
ciently managed  throughout.  The  work  seemed  to  be  han- 
dled both  expeditiously  and  economically,  and  an  examina- 
tion of  the  methods  and  forms  used  seemed  to  indicate  that 
fairly  good  business  methods  were  employed.1  In  the  judg- 
ment of  the  different  members  of  the  Survey  staff,  this  de- 
partment seemed  to  be  the  better  organized  and  more  effi- 
ciently managed  of  the  two.  This  is  perhaps  only  natural, 
as  its  work  is  perfectly  definite,  the  principles  of  good  busi- 
ness organization  are  well  known,  the  personal  element  plays 
a  much  less  important  part,  and  efficiency  in  service  is  much 
easier  to  obtain  and  to  maintain.  It  is  the  part,  too,  that 
the  Board  of  School  Directors  are  most  capable  of  properly 
organizing  and  supervising ;  it  is  the  part  that,  both  by  train- 
ing and  experience,  they  are  best  able  to  understand,  and 
there  is  a  constant  tendency  among  school  boards  to  over- 
emphasize the  importance  of  this  side  of  the  school  organi- 
zation. 

As  the  books  of  the  School  Clerk  are  carefully  audited 
each  year,  the  honesty  of  the  business  office  was  assumed 
by  the  Survey  staff,  and  no  attempt  was  made  to  check  up 
1  See  criticism  of  reports  and  forms  in  Chapter  XVI. 


14  The  Portland  Survey 

the  finances  or  expenditures  of  the  district.  The  annual 
financial  reports  are  made  according  to  the  forms  recom- 
mended for  use  by  the  United  States  Census  Bureau 
and  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  which  is 
commendable. 


Educational  Department  Organization 

The  educational  department,  as  organized  under  the  Su- 
perintendent of  Schools,  is  as  follows : 

SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS 

1.  Two  assistant  superintendents  for  general  super- 

vision 

a.  Special  supervisors 

(1)  Music 

(2)  Drawing 

(3)  Manual  training 

(4)  Domestic  science 

(5)  Sewing 

(6)  Physical  training 

b.  Assistant  supervisors 

(i)    Special  teachers  (manual  training) 

c.  Principals  of  schools 

(1)  Elementary  schools 

(a)  Vice-principals 

(b)  Teachers 

(c)  Pupil  teachers  and  substi- 

tutes 

(2)  High  schools 

(a)  Heads  of  departments 

(b)  Assistant  teachers 

2.  One  assistant  superintendent  for  special  and  voca- 

tional education 

a.    Principals  of  special  schools 
( i )    Teachers 


The  Administrative  Organization  15 

(a)  School  of  Trades 

(x)    Day 
(y)    Evening 

(b)  Evening  schools 

(x)    High 

(y)    Elementary 

(c)  Summer  schools 

(x)    High 

(y)    Elementary 

(z)    Manual  training 

(d)  Special     summer     instruction     for 

teachers  of  special  subjects 

(e)  School  for  deaf 

(f)  School  for  defectives 

3.    Office  assistants 

a.  Clerks 

b.  Stenographers 

c.  Telephone  operator 

The  organization  of  the  educational  department  is  much 
the  same  as  that  found  in  many  other  cities.  Unlike  the 
business  department,  where  a  proper  form  of  organization 
is  well  established,  in  the  educational  department  the  form 
of  organization  is  less  important  than  the  spirit  which  per- 
vades the  organization.  Personality,  insight,  and  breadth 
of  view  count  for  much  more  here  than  in  the  business  de- 
partment. The  work  is  far  less  mechanical  and  less  of  a 
routine  nature,  is  much  more  difficult  to  organize  by  means 
of  rules  and  regulations,  and  depends  much  more  on  the 
quality  of  the  leadership  at  the  top  and  the  freedom  given 
the  leader  or  leaders  to  work  things  out  in  their  own  way, 
than  upon  any  scheme  of  organization  which  can  be  de- 
vised. It  is  in  this  department  that  boards  of  school  di- 
rectors too  frequently  make  the  mistake  of  trying  to  over- 
organize  and  of  trying  to  oversee  affairs  too  minutely.  A 
living  and  growing  school  system,  in  so  far  as  it  relates  to 


i6 


The  Portland  Survey 


the  educational  department,  cannot  be  a  product  of  organi- 
zation and  routine. 


VOLUME  OF   WORK   UNDERTAKEN    BY   THE   BOARD   OF 
SCHOOL   DIRECTORS 

Two  meetings  of  the  Board  of  Directors  were  visited,  and 
different  members  of  the  Survey  staff  examined  the  pro- 
ceedings of  a  number  of  meetings.  The  work  of  the  board 
was  a  matter  of  much  consideration  at  the  conferences  of 
the  Survey  staff,  as  it  was  felt  that  the  work  and  the  attitude 
of  the  board  were,  in  a  way,  the  key  to  the  whole  situation. 
In  addition,  the  writer  of  this  chapter  has  carefully  ex- 
amined the  minutes  of  proceedings  of  all  meetings  held  dur- 
ing three  months  of  the  present  year.  These  were  as  fol- 
lows: 


February  20 

4:00  p.  M. 

Regular  Meeting 

February  24 

8:00  P.  M. 

Special  Meeting 

February  28 

4:30  P.  M. 

Special  Meeting 

March        6 

4:00  P.  M. 

Regular  Meeting 

March      12 

8:00  P.  M. 

Special  Meeting 

March      14 

8:00  P.M. 

Special  Meeting 

March      17 

8:00  P.  M. 

Special  Meeting 

March      20 

4:00  P.  M. 

Regular  Meeting 

March      25 

4:00  P.  M. 

Special  Meeting 

April          3 

4:00  P.  M. 

Regular  Meeting 

April          8 

4:30  P.  M. 

Special  Meeting 

April        10 

8:00  P.M. 

Special  Meeting 

April        12 

8:00  P.  M. 

Special  Meeting 

April        17 

4:00  P.  M. 

Regular  Meeting 

April        21 

8:00  P.M. 

Special  Meeting 

April        28 

8:00  P.M. 

Special  Meeting 

May           i 

4:00  P.  M. 

Regular  Meeting 

May           6 

5:00  P.  M. 

Special  Meeting 

May         12 

5  :oo  P.  M. 

Special  Meeting 

May         15 

8:00  P.  M. 

Regular  Meeting 

May         19 

8:00  P.  M. 

Special  Meeting 

May         21 

8:00  P.  M. 

Special  Meeting 

May         23 

8:00  P.  M. 

Special  Meeting 

From  a  mere  reading  of  the  above  list  one  must  be  im- 
pressed by  the  large  number  of  meetings  held.    When  one 


The  Administrative  Organization  17 

remembers  that  the  board  also  has  eight  different  commit- 
tees; that  each  director  is  a  member  of  four  of  the  eight, 
and  that  the  chairman  of  the  board  is  ex-officio  a  member 
of  all  the  eight;  and  that  meetings  of  these  committees,  to 
consider  matters  referred  to  them  by  the  board  and  to  for- 
mulate reports  on  the  same,  must  also  have  been  frequent  — 
one  is  led  to  wonder  how  anyone  other  than  a  man  of  wealth 
and  leisure,  or  a  young  man  of  no  particular  business,  could 
afford  to  accept  membership  on  the  Board  of  School  Di- 
rectors for  the  Portland  school  district.  It  must  require  a 
very  deep  sense  of  public  duty  for  a  man  who  must  earn  his 
living  to  do  the  work  of  a  school  director  under  the  present 
methods  of  handling  the  public's  educational  business,  and 
many  a  good  man  must  be  discouraged  from  serving  on  the 
board  because  he  cannot  afford  the  time  necessary  to  attend 
to  the  business.  Such  conditions  offer  a  constant  tempta- 
tion to  the  budding  young  politician  or  the  busybody  with 
no  business,  to  seek  membership  on  the  board'  for  personal 
rather  than  public  ends.  The  different  members  of  the  Sur- 
vey staff  were  much  impressed  with  the  devotion  to  the  pub- 
lic interest  of  the  members  of  the  Board  of  School  Directors, 
and  in  particular  with  the  time  spent  on  the  work  and  the 
interest  taken  in  it  by  the  president  of  the  board,  and -they 
consider  it  all  the  more  remarkable  that  the  district  is  able 
to  retain  the  services  of  such  men,  under  the  present  plan  of 
doing  business. 

A  reading  of  the  minutes  of  the  meetings  is  sufficient  to 
show  that  the  Board  of  School  Directors  attempts  to  handle 
in  person  far  too  many  things,  and  to  transact,  through  its 
committees  and  then  by  the  board  as  a  whole,  many  pieces 
of  business  which  ought  to  be  delegated  to  the  heads  of  de- 
partments and  other  subordinates.  The  minutes  show 
clearly  that  the  board  spends  a  large  proportion  of  its  time 
trying  to  handle  technical  and  professional  matters,  largely 
relating  to  teachers  and  instruction,  which  no  board  is  com- 
petent to  handle  alone  and  which  ought  to  be  referred  to 
the  educational  department  for  attention.  A  reading  of  the 


1 8  The  Portland  Survey 

minutes  further  shows  that  the  board  also  spends  another 
large  proportion  of  its  time  in  receiving  communications, 
referring  them  to  committees,  considering  them  there,  re- 
porting them  back  to  the  board  with  recommendations,  and 
then  formally  taking  action,  when  the  matters  considered 
are  of  such  a  special  or  routine  nature  that  the  communica- 
tions should  have  been  referred  at  once  to  the  heads  of  de- 
partments for  action.  Many  of  the  communications,  too, 
should  not  have  gone  to  the  board  at  all,  and  would  not  if 
it  were  generally  understood  by  the  people  that  the  proper 
heads  of  departments  were  in  possession  of  power  to  act  on 
such  matters.  Many  other  communications  are  referred  to 
committees,  considered  there,  and  reported  back  with  the 
recommendation  that  they  "  be  received  and  filed."  In 
most  of  the  cases  the  very  nature  of  the  communications 
made  such  action  the  perfectly  obvious  course,  and  much 
time  could  have  been  saved  if  the  chairman  had  so  directed 
the  clerk,  on  his  merely  reading  the  title.  By  a  proper  or- 
ganization of  the  educational  business,  it  ought  to  be  possi- 
ble to  transact  all  the  school  business  of  the  district  by  a 
meeting  of  an  hour  and  a  half  once  in  two  weeks.  All  such 
means  of  saving  time  are  important,  if  citizens  of  ability 
and  mature  judgment  are  to  be  attracted  to  positions  on  the 
board. 

TYPES  OF  BUSINESS  DEALT  WITH   AT  BOARD  MEETINGS 

The  following  tabulation,  taken  from  the  minutes  above 
referred  to,  will  give  some  suggestion  of  ways  of  saving 
time,  expediting  business,  and  at  the  same  time  improving 
the  service,  all  of  which  might  easily  be  put  into  effect  by 
the  board.  Practically  all  the  following  matters  were  re- 
ferred to  some  committee  for  investigation  and  report,  and 
then  were  acted  on  by  the  board  as  a  whole  at  a  subsequent 
meeting. 

i.  Numerous  requests  from  principals,  teachers,  par- 
ents' organizations,  citizens,  clubs  of  various  kinds,  in- 


The  Administrative  Organization  19 

eluding  one  from  the  parochial  school  authorities,  asking 
permission  to  use  school  buildings  or  grounds  for  some 
purpose,  usually  of  an  educational  nature. 

The  action  on  all  these  was  so  nearly  uniform  that  cer- 
tain general  rules  for  the  use  of  school  buildings  and 
grounds  could  easily  be  formulated,  and  all  such  requests 
could  then  be  turned  over  to  the  School  Clerk  or  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Properties  for  consideration  and  action,  the  board 
delegating  to  them  their  authority  to  act.  In  many  cases 
the  Superintendent  of  Schools  would  need  to  be  consulted; 
seldom  would  it  be  necessary  to  appeal  to  the  board  for 
specific  instructions. 

2.  A  number  of  requests  from  principals  of  schools 
for  permission  to  hold  entertainments  in  their  buildings, 
usually  to  raise  money  for  the  purchase  of  books  or  ap- 
paratus for  the  school. 

3.  The  Trade  School  asked  permission  to  hold  an  an- 
nual  exhibit  of   its  work  and  to   send   invitations  to 
parents. 

4.  The  Trade  School  asked  permission  to  send  an  ex- 
hibit of  its  work  to  the  Eliot  School. 

5.  A  teacher  of  a  96  class  asked  permission  to  hold  a 
little  entertainment  in  her  schoolroom,  after  2.30  p.  M., 
for  the  purposes  of  a  class  memorial. 

These  requests  are  all  much  of  a  class ;  all  are  educational 
in  their  nature,  and  full  authority  in  such  matters  should  be 
given  to  the  Superintendent  of  Schools.  In  cases  3  and  5, 
the  principal  of  the  school  should  feel  that  he  had  full  au- 
thority himself.  If  the  Superintendent  cannot  handle  such 
matters,  the  sooner  the  board  gets  a  superintendent  who  can, 
the  better,  and  if  the  principals  cannot  take  and  wisely  use 
such  responsibility,  they  ought  either  to  be  replaced  by 
principals  who  can,  or  to  have  their  salaries  reduced  to  those 
of  mere  clerks.  It  is  a  waste  of  money  to  pay  salaries  large 
enough  to  buy  judgment  and  discretion,  and  then  not  per- 
mit judgment  and  discretion  to  be  used. 


20  The  Portland  Survey 

6.  A  principal  asked  permission  to  hold  a  meeting 
of  a  mothers'  club  in  his  school  building. 

7.  A  principal  asked  permission  to  hold  a  meeting  in 
his  building  at  which  could  be  reported  to  his  neighbor- 
hood the  results  of  the  Human  Welfare  Congress,  held 
at  Reed  College. 

8.  Two  principals  asked  permission  to  hold  school 
garden  meetings  in  their  buildings  and  to  make  an- 
nouncement of  them  to  their  schools. 

9.  Two  requests  from  a  high  school  principal  for 
permission  to  invite  distinguished  men  to  speak  to  the 
students  of  his  school. 

Full  authority  in  all  these  cases  should  rest  with  the 
school  principal,  with  perhaps  advance  notification  of  the 
Superintendent  of  Properties  as  to  the  use  of  school  build- 
ings at  irregular  hours.  The  schools  are  public  property, 
and  the  board  should  encourage  their  use  as  neighborhood 
centers  and  for  any  legitimate  public  purpose.  If  a  school 
principal  is  to  be  much  of  a  neighborhood  leader,  he  must 
feel  free  to  invite  his  neighbors  to  meet  with  him  at  his 
school  for  any  legitimate  end.  If  the  principal  cannot  use 
such  authority  wisely,  his  successor  ought  to  be  selected 
soon.  In  the  case  of  the  high  school  principal,  it  is  foolish 
to  pay  three  thousand  dollars  a  year  to  a  man  who  is  not 
competent  to  invite  proper  persons  to  address  his  students. 

10.  Certain  teachers  requested  permission  to  use  a 
manual  training  center  for  their  own  instruction. 

Authority  to  grant  this  request  should  rest  with  the 
principal  of  the  school,  or  the  supervisor  of  manual  train- 
ing. Such  requests  should  be  encouraged  and  should  be 
granted  without  question. 

11.  The  teachers'  committee  of  the  board  brought  in 
a  report  directing  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  to  in- 
struct the  schools  to  observe  Peace  Day. 


The  Administrative  Organization  21 

The  Superintendent,  principals,  or  teachers  should  feel 
that  they  have  authority  to  do  this  without  being  directed. 
Matters  relating  to  instruction  in  the  school  should  be  left 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  superintendent  of  instruction. 

12.  The  students  of  the  trade  school  presented  a  peti- 
tion, asking  for  the  removal  of  an  instructor  in  the 
school. 

13.  Groups  of  teachers  presented  recommendations 
in  favor  of  their  principal,  for  selection  as  an  assistant 
superintendent. 

14.  Groups  of  teachers  recommended  the  selection  of 
certain  other  teachers  in  the  system,  as  school  principals. 

Such  a  petition  as  12  should  not  be  received,  except 
through  the  Superintendent  of  Schools.  Such  recommenda- 
tions as  13  and  14  are  complimentary  and  meaningless; 
furthermore,  they  are  not  good  for  the  system.  In  any 
case  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  and  not  the  board 
should  receive  them. 

15.  The  Superintendent  of  Schools  asked  permission 
to  have  a  small  eight-page  folder  printed,  relating  to  the 
adoption  of  textbooks. 

Evidently  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  has  no  authority 
to  take  the  initiative  in  such  matters.  This  is  evident  also 
from  other  minutes,  relating  to  the  Superintendent  of  Prop- 
erties. In  a  school  system  the  size  of  that  of  Portland  some 
freedom  of  action  in  the  matter  of  expenditures  should 
be  granted  heads  of  departments.  The  Superintendent  of 
Schools  and  the  School  Clerk  each  ought  to  be  able,  on  his 
own  authority,  to  incur  an  indebtedness  up  to  one  hundred 
dollars  a  month,  and  the  Superintendent  of  Properties  a 
still  larger  sum.  A  school  principal  ought  also  to  have 
some  limited  authority  in  this  direction.  Probably  no  more 
money  would  be  spent,  as  these  officers  are  as  interested  as 
the  board  in  using  the  school  money  wisely,  but  the  trust 
and  confidence  reposed  would  lead  to  better  service,  and  the 


22  The  Portland  Survey 

board  as  a  body  and  the  members  as  individuals  would  be 
relieved  of  unnecessary  attention  to  details. 

1 6.  The  principals'  monthly  property  reports  are  pre- 
sented to  the  board  each  month,  and  then  referred  to  the 
buildings,   grounds,   supplies,    and   repairs   committees 
for  consideration. 

The  wisdom  of  requiring  such  reports  oftener  than  once 
a  year  may  be  seriously  questioned,  though  reports  as  to 
special  needs  should  be  proper  at  any  time.  In  any  case, 
such  reports  should  be  received,  tabulated,  and  filed  by  the 
Superintendent  of  Properties,  and  the  attention  of  the  board 
called  only  to  such  matters  as  involve  important  expendi- 
tures or  the  authorization  of  new  work.  The  details  as  to 
the  physical  condition  of  the  school  property  should  be  car- 
ried in  the  head  of  the  Superintendent  of  Properties,  and  the 
board  and  its  committees  should  not  spend  their  time  in 
going  over  minor  details  of  little  relative  value. 

17.  The  board  spent  two  entire  sessions,  and  parts  of 
two  others,  in  interviewing  principals  and  special  super- 
visors as  to  the  efficiency  of  their  teachers. 

18.  A  communication  was  read  and  referred,  from 
a  man  who  desired  to  interview  the  board  with  reference 
to  his  employment  as  a  supervisor  of  music. 

19.  One  member  of  the  board  stated  to  a  member  of 
the  Survey  staff  that  as  many  as  one  hundred  applicants 
had  seen  him  this  spring,  with  reference  to  their  em- 
ployment as  teachers  in  the  schools,  and  that  it  had  been 
a  great  drain  on  his  time. 

20.  Another  member  stated  that  a  number  of  per- 
sons had  visited  him  with  reference  to  employment  as 
janitors. 

These  are  all  good  examples  of  waste  of  energy  and  ef- 
fort, for  the  recommendation  of  teachers  for  employment 
should  rest  entirely  with  the  Superintendent  of  Schools. 
This  is  perhaps  one  of  his  most  important  functions,  and  if 


The  Administrative  Organization  23 

he  cannot  perform  this  function,  the  sooner  some  one  who 
can  is  selected  in  his  place  the  better.  It  is  the  one  thing 
which  the  board  is  least  capable  of  handling,  the  one  which 
wastes  most  of  the  directors'  time,  and  the  one  where  they 
make  the  most  mistakes  and  create  the  most  bitter  antag- 
onisms. It  is  a  wise  Board  of  School  Directors  which 
knows  enough  to  let  this  whole  matter  alone  and  to  place 
the  responsibility  for  selections  and  dismissals  squarely  on 
the  shoulders  of  the  Superintendent  of  Schools.  Similarly, 
the  Superintendent  of  Properties  should  be  held  responsible 
for  the  selection  of  janitors,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
Superintendent  of  Schools. 

THE    PRESENT    CONDITION    AN    INHERITANCE 

The  numerous  board  meetings  and  the  handling  of  many 
details  of  administration  which  ought  to  be  passed  over  to 
the  board's  executive  officers,  are  symptoms  of  a  condition 
which  is  not  uncommon  in  school  systems  at  the  present 
time,  and  for  which,  in  the  case  at  hand,  no  one  in  particular 
is  to  blame.  The  plan  of  doing  business  in  that  way  has  de- 
scended from  the  days  when  Portland  was  a  village,  and 
the  methods  for  handling  the  business  are  still  in  part  vil- 
lage methods.  The  board,  no  doubt,  groans  under  the 
heavy  burden,  but,  not  seeing  any  better  way,  goes  through 
the  task  from  a  deep  sense  of  public  duty.  The  Directors 
are  not  themselves  to  be  blamed  for  the  condition  which 
they  have  inherited,  and  are,  in  fact,  victims  of  their  own 
system.  They  owe  it  to  themselves,  though,  as  well  as  to 
the  best  interests  of  the  schools  under  their  charge,  to  break 
through  the  system  and  evolve  a  better  plan  of  work. 

BAD   EFFECTS   OF   THE   SYSTEM 

The  present  method  of  conducting  the  educational  work 
of  the  district  not  only  is  wasteful  of  the  time  of  the  Di- 
rectors and  wholly  unnecessary  from  an  educational  or  a 


24  The  Portland  Survey 

business  point  of  view,  but  has  a  depressing  effect  on  the 
school  system  as  a  whole.  It  was  the  common  conviction 
of  every  member  of  the  Survey  staff  that  the  Board  of  Di- 
rectors, while  thoroughly  honest,  deeply  interested,  and  ex- 
tremely self-sacrificing  of  their  time  and  business  interests, 
were  nevertheless  doing  entirely  too  much  in  the  handling 
of  the  details  of  school  administration,  and  that  the  results 
on  the  school  system  of  such  activity  were  bad.  The  Board 
of  School  Directors  is  too  prominent  in  the  administration ; 
the  executive  officers  have  too  little  authority  and  too  little 
initiative;  and  the  effect  of  such  a  condition  is  felt  down 
through  the  whole  school  system. 

Whether  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  has  continually 
shirked  responsibility  by  passing  it  on  to  his  board,  or 
whether  the  board  has  assumed  authority  and  taught  the 
Superintendent  that  he  must  act  cautiously  and  must  not 
assume  too  much  authority,  we  do  not  know.  With  the 
change  in  Superintendent  soon  to  take  place,  the  point  is 
not  important,  except  for  the  future.  Whatever  may  be 
the  origin  or  the  cause,  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  is 
given  at  present  too  little  authority,  and  the  one-year  term 
of  office  tends  to  hold  him  in  subjection.  As  a  result  he 
comes  to  act  cautiously  and  to  defer  continually  to  his  board. 
He  comes  to  the  meetings,  but  his  opinion  is  seldom  asked 
and  seldom  offered.  Matters  which  are  clearly  within  his 
province  are  referred  to  board  committees,  not  to  him.  He 
is  entirely  too  little  of  a  leader,  entirely  too  much  of  an 
office  clerk.  Having  little  authority  himself,  he  can  in  turn 
give  but  little  to  his  principals.  They,  too,  must  be  cautious, 
and  must  not  assume  much  personal  authority.  They  in 
turn  pass  on  the  same  spirit  to  their  teachers,  with  the  result 
that  all  who  really  think  come  to  feel  themselves  part  of  a 
system,  in  the  devising  of  which  they  were  not  consulted 
and  in  the  conduct  of  which  they  have  but  little  to  say. 

The  effect  on  the  school  system  is  about  the  same  as 
where  a  strong  and  capable  mother  assumes  all  authority 
over  her  boy,  forms  his  judgments  for  him,  decides  what  he 


The  Administrative  Organization  25 

shall  wear,  tells  him  what  to  do  and  how  he  shall  do  it,  and 
directs  all  his  important  actions.  Her  judgments  may  be, 
in  most  cases,  better  than  his,  but  the  result  of  the  long 
training  is  that  the  boy  grows  up  dependent  on  his  mother, 
weak  and  indecisive,  lacking  in  resolution  or  will  power, 
and  lacking  in  force  and  manhood.  A  board  of  school 
directors  may,  similarly,  prevent  the  proper  and  healthy 
development  of  a  school  system  by  too  minute  an  attention 
to  the  details  of  administration. 

It  was  the  judgment  of  the  different  members  of  the  Sur- 
vey staff  that  something  of  such  a  condition  exists  in  Port- 
land at  the  present  time,  and  that  the  fundamental  weak- 
ness which  seems  to  pervade  the  whole  system  goes  back 
largely  to  this  source.  If  the  Board  of  Directors  in  the  past 
had  been  less  efficient,  if  they  had  put  less  time  and  less  de- 
votion into  the  service,  if  they  had  forced  their  Superin- 
tendent of  Schools  to  assume  more  authority  and  to  pass 
more  authority  down  to  his  principals  and  teachers,  the 
system  would  be  stronger  and  more  capable  of  swimming 
alone  than  it  is  today.  The  strength  of  the  system  as  it  is 
now  is  due  more  to  the  excellent  character  of  the  children  in 
the  schools  and  to  the  good  training,  youth,  and  good  sense 
of  the  teachers  than  to  the  system  of  supervision  which 
ought  to  guide  and  direct  it. 

THE   WAY   OUT 

The  present  time  offers  a  good  opportunity  for  a  re- 
organization that  will  mean  the  remaking  of  the  school  sys- 
tem, and  for  a  change  that  will  introduce  right  principles  of 
organization  and  relieve  the  board  members  of  many  of 
their  onerous  duties. 

The  present  independence  of  the  two  departments  ought 
to  be  replaced  by  centralization  into  one  department,  the 
educational,  with  subdepartments  under  proper  executive 
heads.  The  present  independence  of  the  School  Clerk, 
though  it  works  very  well  with  the  present  appointee,  is  fun- 


26  The  Portland  Survey 

damentally  wrong  in  principle.  Schools  are  maintained  for 
the  sake  of  the  educational  side,  and  the  success  of  affairs 
on  the  purely  educational  side  is  dependent,  in  no  small 
measure,  on  the  hearty  cooperation  of  both  the  School  Clerk 
and  the  Superintendent  of  Properties.  While  exercising 
large  independent  jurisdiction  in  many  matters,  both  should 
be  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Superintendent  of 
Schools.  He  cannot,  properly,  be  held  accountable  for  the 
successful  conduct  of  the  educational  affairs  entrusted  to 
him  unless,  in  the  final  analysis,  he  has  such  final  control. 
Under  the  present  plan  there  are  two  departments,  clear 
and  distinct,  when  there  should  be  but  one,  and  that  one 
the  educational,  properly  subdivided  for  efficient  adminis- 
tration. The  diagram  on  page  28  (Figure  3)  shows  the 
relationships  which  ought  to  exist. 

The  Supervision  of  Instruction 

At  the  head  of  the  school  department  is  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Schools.  His  chief  function  will  be  the  super- 
vision of  instruction,  but  with  final  jurisdiction,  subject 
only  to  the  Board  of  School  Directors,  in  the  case  of  other 
matters  than  instruction.  He  should  be  made  the  real  head 
and  leader  of  the  school  system  in  fact  as  well  as  in  name, 
and  full  responsibility  for  the  successful  conduct  of  all  de- 
partments of  the  educational  service  should  be  placed 
squarely  on  his  shoulders.  He  should  accordingly  be  given 
tenure,  salary,  jurisdiction,  and  authority  commensurate 
with  the  responsibility  placed  upon  him.  He  should  be 
elected  for  three-  or  four-year  terms,  so  as  to  give  him  in- 
dependence in  action.  The  choice  of  his  immediate  sub- 
ordinates —  his  cabinet,  as  it  were  —  should  rest  almost  en- 
tirely with  him,  and  those  who  cannot  do  the  work  he  wants 
done  should  be  relieved  of  their  duties.  As  long  as  he  can 
stand  up  under  such  responsibility  and  handle  the  affairs 
of  the  department  with  wisdom  and  good  sense,  the  board 
should  stand  by  him  and  his  recommendations;  whenever 


The  Administrative  Organization  27 

the  board  comes  to  feel  that  he  does  not  come  up  to  the 
position  which  has  been  created,  or  does  not  fill  the  position 
as  it  should  be  filled,  they  should  call  for  his  resignation  and 
select  someone  else  who  has  the  proper  personality,  courage, 
knowledge,  and  insight.  In  our  large  city-school  system 
today  it  is  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  who  gives  char- 
acter and  tone  to  the  whole  system.  What  a  school  system 
is,  it  is  largely  because  of  the  insight,  personality,  and  force 
of  the  Superintendent  of  Schools. 

To  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  also  should  be  given 
final  control  of  the  courses  of  study  in  the  schools;  the  selec- 
tion of  textbooks  and  supplementary  books  to  carry  out  the 
courses  of  study;  the  selection,  promotion,  and  dismissal 
of  teachers;  the  assignment  of  teachers  and  principals  to 
their  duties ;  the  making  of  rules  and  regulations  relating  to 
the  conduct  of  the  schools,  and  the  general  control  of  the 
educational  work  of  the  school  system.  In  many  of  these 
matters,  —  in  nearly  all  of  them,  in  fact,  —  he  will  act  only 
after  consultation  with  subordinates,  particularly  the  assist- 
ant superintendents  and  the  principals.  As  an  advisory  body 
the  assistant  superintendents  should  form  for  him  a  kind 
of  educational  cabinet;  this  cannot  be,  however,  unless  they 
are  of  his  choosing  and  fully  in  sympathy  with  him  in  what 
he  is  trying  to  do. 

As  long  as  the  board  has  confidence  in  the  judgment  and 
ability  of  the  Superintendent,  he  should  be  supported  in  his 
acts ;  when  they  cease  to  have  such  confidence,  they  should 
call  for  his  resignation.  They  should  not  assume  authority 
in  educational  matters  themselves,  nor  permit  him  to  evade 
his  proper  responsibility  by  putting  it  off  on  them.  Book 
agents,  applicants  for  teachers'  positions,  disgruntled  teach- 
ers and  principals,  and  persons  seeking  favors  in  the  educa- 
tional branch  of  the  school  department  should  at  once  be 
referred  to  the  Superintendent  of  Schools,  with  the  state- 
ment that  the  board  makes  it  a  rule  to  take  no  action  ex- 
cept upon  his  recommendation.  When  once  this  is  under- 
stood, the  time  of  the  board  members  will  not  be  consumed 


28 


The  Portland  Survey 


The  Administrative  Organization  29 

by  unnecessary  interviews,  and  the  service  in  the  schools 
will  be  very  materially  improved.  The  Superintendent  of 
Schools  will  make  some  mistakes,  of  course,  but  far  fewer 
in  such  matters  than  will  the  Board  of  School  Directors. 
The  Superintendent  exercises  his  best  judgment  in  the  light 
of  his  long  experience  and  according  to  certain  well-estab- 
lished educational  principles;  a  Board  of  School  Directors, 
in  most  educational  matters,  simply  guesses. 

Business  Department 

The  present  organization  of  this  department  is  good  and 
should  be  continued  as  it  is  with  few  changes,  if  any.  The 
clerk  holds  a  position  analogous  to  that  of  business  man- 
ager in  other  school  systems,  and  in  the  recommendations 
given  in  Appendix  A  (page  419)  this  term  has  been  substi- 
tuted. The  board  followed  good  principles  in  appointing  to 
this  position  one  who  had  been  a  school  principal,  for  it 
is  easier  to  develop  business  sense  in  a  good  school  man 
than  educational  sense  in  a  business  man.  The  clerk,  or 
business  manager,  should  be  kept  close  to  the  educational 
management  and  made  to  feel  that  he  is  a  part  of  the  edu- 
cational organization.  The  present  isolation,  with  the  clerk 
having  his  dealings  chiefly  with  the  board,  is  fundamentally 
wrong  and  is  certain  to  lead  some  day  to  conflict  and  wasted 
energy.  His  duties  are  at  present  well  assigned,  though  his 
independence  in  certain  business  matters  ought  to  be  en- 
larged. 

Building  Department 

The  Superintendent  of  Properties  should  be  given  rather 
large  independent  powers  and  duties,  and  the  position 
should  be  evolved  into  one  of  much  importance.  The  pres- 
ent control  of  the  School  Clerk  should  be  changed  to  that 
of  the  Superintendent  of  Schools,  but  with  the  Super- 
intendent of  Properties  the  head  of  an  otherwise  independ- 
ent department.  Many  of  the  duties  now  cared  for  by  the 


3Q  The  Portland  Survey 

building,  repairs,  and  insurance  committees  should  be 
placed  under  his  control.  The  janitors  for  the  schools 
should  be  put  in  his  department  and  under  his  supervision 
and  instruction,  rather  than  that  of  the  School  Clerk,  and  no 
janitor  or  workman  should  be  employed  by  the  board  for 
his  department,  or  dismissed  from  his  service,  except  on  his 
specific  recommendation.  In  the  selection  of  janitors  the 
Superintendent  of  Schools  should  have  the  right  of  approval, 
and  he  should  also  have  the  right  of  taking  the  initiative  in 
the  dismissal  of  a  janitor  for  cause.  The  board  should 
create  certain  standards  for  the  position  of  school  janitor, 
which  is  next  in  importance  to  that  of  the  principal  in  the 
proper  administration  of  a  school,  and  all  applicants  for 
such  positions  should  be  referred  at  once  to  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Properties.  Certain  instruction  for  the  janitors 
in  service,  as  is  recommended  in  Chapter  XIII,  ought  also 
to  be  provided  for  by  the  Board  or  the  Superintendent  of 
Properties.1 

Under  this  department  there  should  be  a  school  architect 
and  a  school  engineer.  School  architecture  cannot  be  satis- 
factorily handled  by  a  general  architect.  Buildings  are  so 
integral  a  part  of  education  that  they  should  become  a 
special  study  of  some  capable  architect  who  is  willing  to 
give  several  years  of  his  best  thought  to  the  problem.  Pref- 
erably he  should  be  a  man  who  has  not  reached  middle 
age.  There  are  many  advantages  in  taking  a  young  man 
and  giving  him  pay  and  opportunity  for  travel  and  study 
of  the  best  that  has  been  done  elsewhere.  He  should  de- 
velop the  art  side  of  the  building  problem.  Our  public 
school  buildings  should  be  the  most  artistic  buildings  in  our 
cities.  This  does  not  mean  that  they  should  be  expensive. 
From  an  art  standpoint  school  architecture  should  not  be 
uniform  in  cities.  The  present  plan,  so  commonly  followed 
in  our  cities,  of  building  forty  or  fifty  school  buildings 
throughout  the  city  all  alike,  is  not  good  art.  Every  district, 
if  thoroughly  studied  by  one  with  an  art  instinct,  is  suffi- 

1  See  page  335. 


The  Administrative  Organization  31 

ciently  individualistic  to  justify  recognition  in  the  character 
of  the  building.  In  a  city  such  as  Portland,  where  much 
building  will  have  to  be  done  in  the  near  future  and  where 
the  present  school  plant  will  have  to  be  largely  reconstructed 
within  the  next  twenty-five  years,  this  is  a  matter  of  im- 
portance. The  school  engineer  should  be  responsible  for 
the  more  technical  phases  of  the  problem,  such  as  heating, 
ventilation,  lighting,  strength  of  materials,  stresses,  plumb- 
ing, and  the  supervision  of  such  construction.  Just  how  far 
these  duties,  or  part  of  them,  can  be  covered  for  the  present 
by  the  Superintendent  of  Properties  we  do  not  know,  as  we 
are  not  familiar  with  his  technical  training. 

The  Proper  Functions  of  the  Board 

This  does  not  mean  that  a  Board  of  School  Directors 
will  have  nothing  left  to  do.  On  the  contrary,  there  will 
still  be  plenty  left.  It  simply  means  that  in  those  matters 
which  require  expert  judgment,  and  which  no  board  of 
laymen  is  competent  wisely  to  decide,  they  ought  to  act 
only  on  the  recommendation  of  the  experts  whom  they  em- 
ploy and  whom  they  should  trust.  The  matters  which 
boards  of  laymen  are  not  competent  to  handle  are  those 
relating  to  the  engineering  and  hygienic  problems  of  school- 
house  construction;  the  outlining  of  the  courses  of  study; 
the  selection  of  textbooks;  the  competency  of  instruction, 
and  the  selection,  assignment,  promotion,  and  dismissal  of 
teachers  and  janitors.  These  matters  are  matters  of  ex- 
pert judgment  and  should  be  left  to  the  experts  employed 
by  the  board.  It  is  foolish  for  laymen  to  pay  a  good  salary 
to  professional  experts  and  then  ignore  their  judgment  and 
advice. 

This  leaves  the  board  free  alike  from  the  strong  personal 
pulls  and  influences  and  from  the  petty  details  of  school  ad- 
ministration, with  time  to  devote  to  the  larger  problems  of 
its  work.  These  relate  to  the  selection  of  its  expert  advisers, 
upon  which  much  time  and  care  should  be  spent ;  the  larger 


32  The  Portland  Survey 

problems  of  finance,  present  and  future;  the  selection  of 
school  sites,  always  with  future  needs  and  growth  in  mind ; 
the  approval  of  building  plans;  the  determination  of  the 
budget  of  expenses;  the  final  decision  as  to  proposed  ex- 
pansions and  enlargements  of  the  educational  system;  the 
prevention  of  unwise  legislation  by  the  city  or  by  the  legis- 
lature, and  the  representation  of  the  needs  and  policies  of 
the  school  system  before  the  people  of  the  city  and  of  the 
state.  These  larger  needs  are  far  more  important,  but  are 
almost  sure  to  be  neglected  if  a  Board  of  School  Directors 
attempts  to  manage  too  minutely  the  details  of  school  ad- 
ministration. 

Perhaps  no  better  illustration  of  this  statement  can  be 
found  than  in  the  case  of  the  enactment  of  the  teachers' 
permanent  tenure  law,  which  applies  only  to  the  Portland 
school  district,  by  the  Oregon  legislature  of  last  winter. 
To  prevent  the  passage  of  so  unwise  a  law  by  studying  the 
causes  which  gave  rise  to  it,  meeting  with  the  leaders  of 
the  movement,  making  the  necessary  concessions  (see  Chap- 
ter IV),  and,  if  necessary,  appearing  as  a  body  before  the 
state  legislature  in  opposition  to  the  measure,  was  per- 
haps the  most  important  duty  of  the  Board  of  School  Di- 
rectors of  the  Portland  school  district  during  the  past  year. 
As  far  as  can  be  learned,  however,  practically  nothing  was 
done  in  the  matter,  and,  as  a  result,  an  unthinking  legisla- 
ture passed  a  thoroughly  bad  law  to  oblige  a  few  score  of 
the  new  electors  who  appeared  before  it  and  made  its  pas- 
sage a  personal  matter. 

APPLICATION  OF  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  GOOD  CORPORATION 
MANAGEMENT 

The  principles  of  good  corporation  organization  need  to 
be  applied  to  educational  affairs,  and  boards  of  school  di- 
rectors need  to  assume  more  the  position  of  a  board  of 
directors  for  a  large  corporation,  giving  to  their  executive 
officers  the  authority  which  corporation  directors  give  to 


The  Administrative  Organization  33 

their  ^presidents  and  superintendents.  The  proper  functions 
of  the  board  of  directors  are  to  supply  funds,  to  supervise 
expenditure,  and  to  determine  what  additions  to  the  plant 
or  extensions  of  the  business  are  to  be  undertaken.  As 
long  as  the  business  prospers,  the  board  should  leave  the 
details  of  employment  and  management  to  the  president 
and  heads  of  departments ;  when  the  business  ceases  to  pros- 
per, they  should  either  change  their  business  methods  or 
change  their  executive  heads.  The  school  corporation  of 
the  Portland  school  district  does  a  three-million-dollar  busi- 
ness each  year.  Its  business  management  seems  to  be  along 
good  corporate  lines,  but  its  professional  management  does 
not.  There  is  too  little  authority  given  to  its  chief  execu- 
tive officer  and  those  who  should  be  his  chiefs  of  staff,  and 
too  much  unintentional  interference  with  these  officers  in 
the  exercise  of  their  proper  functions. 


CHAPTER   III 
THE    SYSTEM    OF    SUPERVISION 

SOURCES   AND   METHODS   OF   WORK 

THE  system  of  supervision  employed  in  the  Portland 
school  district  was  a  matter  of  deep  interest  to  all  who 
worked  on  the  Survey.  While  the  attitude  of  the  Board  of 
School  Directors  toward  the  administrative  problem  was 
felt  to  be,  in  a  way,  the  key  to  the  whole  situation,  the  sys- 
tem of  educational  supervision  set  up  and  maintained  by 
the  board  and  supervisory  force  —  superintendent,  assist- 
ant superintendents,  special  supervisors,  and  principals  — 
was  also  felt  to  be  of  prime  importance  in  determining  the 
aims  and  purpose  of  the  educational  work  and  the  working 
spirit  of  the  educational  organization.  Accordingly  much 
attention  was  given  by  every  member  of  the  Survey  staff 
who  worked  on  Parts  I,  II,  or  IV  of  this  report,  to  the  su- 
pervisory organization  and  to  the  nature  and  spirit  of  the 
supervision.  A  number  of  conferences  were  held  with  the 
Superintendent  of  Schools  and  with  the  assistant  superin- 
tendents, and  every  principal  visited  was  questioned,  some- 
what at  length,  as  to  his  own  work,  his  part  in  the  system 
of  supervision,  and  the  relation  of  the  supervisory  authori- 
ties and  the  Board  of  School  Directors  to  what  he  was  doing. 
An  effort  was  made  to  ascertain  the  exact  nature  of  the 
system,  the  character  of  the  work  of  each  member  of  the 
supervisory  organization,  and  the  real  supervisory  needs  of 
the  district.  The  nature  and  needs  of  the  supervisory  or- 
ganization formed  a  topic  for  frequent  discussions  at  the 
conferences  held,  and  all  were  agreed  as  to  the  general 
conclusions  which  were  finally  reached.  The  "  Rules  and 
Regulations  of  the  School  District "  were  also  examined 

34 


The  System  of  Supervision  35 

and  discussed,  and,  near  the  close  of  the  field  work,  an  in- 
quiry form  was  sent  to  each  principal  in  the  district,  asking 
for  information  as  to  his  teaching  and  supervisory  experi- 
ence, special  preparation  for  his  particular  piece  of  work, 
chief  supervisory  services,  and  the  important  problems  of 
his  school.  The  replies  to  the  inquiry  sent  out,  while  af- 
fording some  useful  information,  were  perhaps  more  note- 
worthy for  what  they  omitted  than  for  what  they  contained. 
That  the  system  of  supervision  in  use  in  Portland  was 
not  adequate  to  meet  the  educational  needs  of  such  a  city, 
was  early  apparent,  and  the  different  members  of  the  Sur- 
vey staff  gave  much  time  and  attention  to  trying  to  find  out 
just  what  was  the  matter,  with  the  desire  to  locate  the 
trouble  so  as  to  be  able  to  point  out  means  whereby  the  ex- 
isting conditions  might  be  improved.  After  careful  con- 
sideration of  the  problem,  the  members  of  the  Survey  staff 
arrived  at  certain  rather  definite  conclusions  relating  to  the 
matter,  which  are  embodied  in  this  chapter. 

WEAKNESS  OF  THE  SYSTEM  FOUND 

That  the  system  of  supervision  had  not  been  developed 
into  a  strong  system  was  evident  almost  at  once.  Looked 
at  from  the  outside,  and  in  the  light  of  good  administra- 
tive principles,  the  system  at  once  gave  the  impression  of 
lacking  self-reliance  and  of  being  weak  from  over-direction 
from  above.  This  fundamental  weakness  seemed  to  per- 
vade the  whole  supervisory  system  and  to  extend  from  the 
top  downward.  The  system  seemed  to  lack  character  and 
strength,  and  seemed  to  be  more  of  a  system  of  inspection 
and  reporting  than  a  system  of  helpful  educational  leader- 
ship. The  system  seemed  to  be  suffering  from  too  many 
rules  and  too  little  personal  initiative,  and,  as  a  result,  to  be 
realizing  but  a  low  percentage  of  its  possible  efficiency.  The 
over-direction  seemed,  in  a  way,  to  be  stifling  the  growth  of 
those  in  it  and  in  part  paralyzing  their  impulses  to  indi- 
vidual action. 


36  The  Portland  Survey 

Relatively  few  members  of  the  supervisory  force  im- 
pressed the  members  of  the  Survey  staff  as  being-  thoroughly 
alive  educationally,  or  as  fully  measuring  up  to  the  possi- 
bilities of  the  task  before  them.  We  found  six  or  seven  of 
the  elementary  school  principals,  and  some  of  the  super- 
visors of  special  subjects,  who  seemed  thoroughly  conscious 
of  what  ought  to  be  demanded  of  them  and  anxious  to 
make  personal  and  professional  progress.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  found  very  few  in  the  supervisory  force  who 
seemed  to  be  really  poor  material.  The  great  majority  im- 
pressed us  rather  as  being  well  selected  and  of  good  ma- 
terial, but  dormant  rather  than  active.  They  impressed  us 
as  doing  very  little  real  educational  thinking,  and  as  in  a 
way  fitting  into  the  system  and  drifting  along,  doing  rea- 
sonably well  what  they  were  directed  to  do,  but  showing 
little  or  no  personal  initiative  and  but  little  consciousness 
of  the  large  educational  possibilities  of  their  positions.  As, 
a  class,  they  impressed  us  as  relying  largely  on  their  past 
experience  and  as  doing  but  little  reading  and  studying. 

SUCH  CONDITIONS  NOT  INHERENT 

In  Portland,  of  all  places,  such  a  state  of  affairs  ought  not 
to  be  found.  The  conditions  there  are  such  that  the  city 
ought  to  have  one  of  the  most  progressive  and  aggressive 
school  systems  in  the  land,  with  a  thoroughly  alive  and 
thoroughly  well-informed  supervisory  organization. 

After  seeing  the  different  members  of  the  supervisory 
force,  we  were  convinced  that  such  conditions  ought  not  to 
exist  in  Portland.  Personally,  the  sixty  supervisory  officers 
employed  measured  up  well  —  better  in  fact  than  those  of 
the  average  middle-sized  or  large  city.  An  examination  of 
their  education  and  experience  records  would  indicate  that 
they  are  a  rather  superior  lot  of  men  and  women,  and  an 
examination  of  their  age  records  shows  that  most  of  them 
still  belong  to  the  active  fruitful  years  between  thirty  and 
fifty  —  years  when  they  ought  to  be  growing  and  rendering 


The  System  of  Supervision  37 

the  largest  possible  service  to  the  city.  In  clerical  work,  in 
supervising  fire  drills  and  marching,  in  giving  out  supplies, 
in  keeping  records,  in  looking  after  the  material  equipment, 
and  in  handling  the  mechanical  side  of  their  work,  nearly 
all  of  them  seemed  to  be  quite  efficient.  On  the  other  hand, 
many  did  not  seem  to  know  what  ought  to  be  done  in  the 
classrooms,  or  why,  or  how  to  extend  helpful  personal 
supervision  to  their  teachers.  Most  of  them  seemed  to  ac- 
cept the  whole  system  as  it  was,  without  much  of  a  question 
why.  This  seemed  true  also  of  at  least  one  of  the  high 
school  principals,  of  some  of  the  heads  of  departments  with- 
in the  high  schools,  and  of  some  of  the  teachers  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools  with  whom  we  talked. 

FULL  EFFICIENCY  NOT  REALIZED 

Gradually  we  were  led  to  feel  that,  under  the  system  of 
supervision  in  use,  the  Board  of  School  Directors  was  not 
realizing  one  half  of  the  possible  efficiency  of  principals  and 
superintendents.  Many  of  the  teachers,  too,  were  not  work- 
ing with  full  steam  ahead.  A  board  of  school  directors 
ought,  theoretically,  so  to  set  conditions  as  to  get  from  its 
superintendents  and  principals  all  or  more  than  it  pays 
them  for ;  under  the  present  supervisory  conditions  it  seemed 
to  us  that  the  board  was,  in  most  cases,  paying  for  more 
than  it  received.  The  present  salaries  for  supervisory  offi- 
cers in  Portland  are  low,  if  the  highest  grade  of  supervisory 
service  is  to  be  obtained ;  they  are  high,  in  most  cases,  for 
the  kind  of  service  now  rendered.  Salaries  of  $7,000  to 
$8,000  for  a  superintendent  of  schools,  $3,500  to  $4,500  for 
assistant  superintendents,  $3,600  for  high  school  principals, 
$2,400  to  $2,800  for  the  principals  of  intermediate  schools, 
and  $2,200  to  $2,400  for  the  larger  elementary  school  prin- 
cipalships,  are  not  too  large  salaries  for  Portland  to  pay 
for  such  positions  to  men  or  women  of  distinctly  first-rate 
ability.  Such  salaries,  though,  ought  not  to  be  paid  except 
to  those  of  demonstrated  executive  capacity  and  as  a  proper 


38  The  Portland  Survey 

return  for  the  wise  and  judicious  exercise  of  large  authority 
and  responsibility.  To  pay  salaries  which  ought  to  buy  the 
ability  to  exercise  large  authority  and  responsibility,  and 
then  not  encourage  or  allow  its  use,  is  a  waste  both  of  money 
and  of  executive  efficiency.  The  best  men  tend  to  get  out 
from  under  such  a  system;  average  men  fall  into  the  ruts 
and  rapidly  lose  such  ability  to  exercise  authority  as  they 
once  possessed. 

ULTIMATE  REASONS  FOR  THE  CONDITION 

The  more  the  situation  was  examined,  the  more  we  were 
convinced  that  the  ultimate  reason  for  this  condition,  dis- 
regarding for  the  present  other  matters,  depends  on  the 
same  causes  that  were  pointed  out  in  the  preceding  chapter. 
In  the  supervision  of  the  schools,  as  well  as  in  many  other 
matters,  the  Board  of  School  Directors  is  too  prominent; 
the  Superintendent  of  Schools,  the  assistant  superintendents, 
and  the  principals  occupy  entirely  too  subordinate  a  position. 
The  board  tries  to  manage  too  much  and  to  control  too 
many  details.  Many  matters  which  it  now  handles  in  large 
part  ought  to  be  passed  on  to  subordinates  for  action.  The 
supervisory  force,  on  the  other  hand,  leave  to  the  board  and 
refer  for  decision  many  matters  which  ought  to  be  assumed 
as  lying  within  their  own  spheres  of  authority  and  action. 
It  would  be  a  hopeful  sign  of  educational  consciousness  if 
the  Superintendent,  supervisors,  and  principals,  while  admit- 
ting the  legal  right  of  the  board  to  decide  such  matters, 
were,  at  times,  seriously  to  contest  their  educational  right 
to  do  so. 

The  result,  as  was  pointed  out  in  the  preceding  chapter, 
has  been  that  the  school  system  has  not  developed  the  ex- 
ecutive strength  it  ought  to  have.  What  real  strength  the 
system  has  today  comes  to  it  more  by  reason  of  the  youth, 
good  education,  and  character  of  its  teachers  than  by  rea- 
son of  the  plan  of  supervision  under  which  the  system  is 
operated.  Of  real  educational  leadership  there  is  altogether 


The  System  of  Supervision  39 

too  little ;  of  stimuli  to  independent  action  and  thinking  there 
are  altogether  too  few.  As  a  result,  a  certain  timidity  and 
lack  of  character,  indicating  a  fundamental  weakness  some- 
where, seems  to  pervade  the  supervisory  organization.  In 
most  matters,  the  supervisory  officers  keep  close  to  the  well- 
established  paths  and  do  not  assume  much  independence 
in  action.  The  school  system,  as  a  natural  result,  is  strong 
chiefly  along  the  old  traditional  lines,  and  a  uniformity  so 
marked  that  it  impedes  progress  characterizes  the  educa- 
tional system. 

A  few  of  the  stronger  and  more  progressive  principals 
have  departed  a  little,  it  is  true,  from  this  uniformity,  gen- 
erally in  matters  other  than  instruction,  and  have  been  al- 
lowed to  do  so.  This  activity  has  been  due  rather  to  per- 
sonal strength  and  energy  than  to  any  pressure  from  above 
exerted  to  produce  it,  and  has  merely  been  permitted. 
To  a  somewhat  frequent  question  asked  of  the  principals, 
"  Do  you  feel  any  pressure  put  on  you  from  above  to  become 
more  efficient,  and  to  be  a  stronger  and  more  useful  prin- 
cipal, or  lose  your  position?"  the  answer  was  almost  uni- 
formly "  No."  A  number  added  that,  on  the  contrary,  the 
pressure  was  in  the  other  direction,  and  that  they  felt  ham- 
pered by  the  inspection,  the  uniformity,  and  the  lack  of  in- 
dependence in  action.  Those  principals  who  had  recently 
come  to  the  system  from  elsewhere  were,  in  general,  the 
ones  who  recognized  the  condition  most  clearly ;  while  those 
who  had  grown  up  under  the  system  frequently  could  see 
little  the  matter  with  it. 

CHARACTERISTICS    OF   A    GOOD    SUPERVISORY    ORGANIZATION 

Such  a  condition  is  not  conducive  to  healthy  growth  and 
is  not  good  for  the  schools.  Just  as  a  superintendent  of 
schools,  by  his  educational  insight,  personality,  and  force, 
gives  tone  and  character  to  a  whole  school  system,  so  do 
principals  or  special  supervisors  give  tone  to  the  school  or 
to  the  work  under  their  immediate  supervision.  A  good 


4O  The  Portland  Survey 

supervisory  organization  always  places  a  positive  premium 
on  the  development  of  those  personal  and  professional  quali- 
ties which  give  tone  and  character  to  a  school.  It  encour- 
ages a  judicious  use  of  personal  liberty  in  action,  and  stimu- 
lates thinking  and  personal  growth  by  placing  responsibil- 
ity and  encouraging  initiative.  It  places  a  premium  on  per- 
sonal efficiency,  and  on  being  and  keeping  stronger  than  the 
average  of  the  mass.  Especially  in  the  high  school  does  it 
place  a  premium  on  intelligent  departures  from  uniform 
procedure.  The  man  or  woman  who  merely  drifts  along, 
handling  the  mechanical  details,  doing  only  what  is  required, 
taking  few  chances,  and  putting  but  little  thought  and  in- 
telligence into  the  work,  is  not  really  worth  much  in  salary, 
and  administrative  conditions  ought  to  be  so  shaped  as 
rapidly  to  eliminate  such  supervisory  officers  from  the 
system. 

It  was  soon  evident  to  the  members  of  the  Survey  that 
Portland  was  failing  to  get  the  best  results  from  its  prin- 
cipals. This  is  due  to  responsibility  not  being  placed  upon 
them.  Because  of  lack  of  opportunity  to  exercise  initiative, 
they  are  expending  their  efforts  in  carrying  out  a  system  in 
whose  creation  they  had  little  or  no  part.  The  result  is  a 
uniformity  in  the  schools  that  is  almost  appalling.  Every 
school  and  each  classroom  in  it  has  problems  peculiar  to 
itself.  The  waste  of  time,  effort,  and  life  is  deplorable. 
No  system  of  education  can  be  highly  efficient  without  draw- 
ing upon  its  corps  of  teachers  and  principals  to  work  out  its 
educational  problems.  Nor  will  committees  and  counselors 
suffice.  Every  principal  must  be  given  to  understand  clearly 
that  he  is  responsible  not  only  for  the  problems  common  to 
the  system,  but  for  those  peculiar  to  his  individual  school. 
Fortunate  is  the  school  if  the  principal  realizes  that  he  can 
successfully  solve  these  only  by  allowing  the  teacher,  in  her 
turn,  to  show  individuality  in  working  out  her  room  prob- 
lems and  in  assisting  in  developing  his  school. 


The  System  of  Supervision  41 


RULES   AND   REGULATIONS   AND  THE   SYSTEM 

An  examination  of  the  "  Rules  and  Regulations  "  for  the 
schools  of  the  district  is  enough  to  reveal  most  of  the  causes 
of  the  existing  conditions,  and  an  examination  of  the  ad- 
ministrative practices  only  confirms  the  impression  created 
by  a  reading  of  the  rules  and  regulations.  The  Board  of 
School  Directors  tries  to  handle  far  too  many  things  by 
rule ;  the  Superintendent  and  his  staff  are  given  entirely  too 
little  authority  and  are  held  responsible  to  the  board  for  far 
too  few  things;  the  rules  and  regulations  cover  too  many 
matters  which  ought  to  be  left  to  someone's  good  judgment 
and  good  sense;  the  principals  and  teachers  are  not  dealt 
with  in  quite  the  manner  calculated  to  secure  any  large 
degree  of  confidence  or  friendly  cooperation,  and  a  series 
of  checkings  up  and  petty  fines  enforces  the  regulations  of 
the  board.  The  effect  of  such  a  method  extends  into  the 
Superintendent's  office,  and  from  there  down  to  the  prin- 
cipals and  teachers  in  the  schools. 

Whether  these  conditions  have  come  as  a  result  of  in- 
action on  the  part  of  the  Superintendent,  the  board  feeling 
themselves  forced  to  assume  authority  because  he  did  not 
assume  it,  and  to  govern  by  rules  because  he  did  not  govern 
by  personal  direction;  or  whether  the  board  has  assumed 
the  authority  because  they  had  the  legal  right  to  do  so,  and 
have  kept  the  Superintendent  in  the  background,  we  do  not 
know  and  do  not  attempt  to  say.  The  point  is  not  impor- 
tant, except  for  the  future.  Whatever  the  origin  of  the 
condition,  however,  the  board  does  too  much  and  has  too 
many  mandatory  rules;  it  puts  too  little  responsibility  on 
the  Superintendent  and  gives  him  too  little  authority;  an 
unnecessary  uniformity,  often  deadening  in  its  effects,  seems 
to  pervade  the  system,  and  a  series  of  examinations,  in- 
spections, and  reports  replaces  the  leadership  and  helpful 
relationships  found  in  many  other  cities.  The  system,  as 
has  been  stated  before,  is  doubtless  one  of  long  evolution, 


42  The  Portland  Survey 

for  which  no  one  in  particular  is  responsible,  but  one  which 
the  present  opportunity  offers  a  good  chance  to  change. 

CONCRETE  ILLUSTRATIONS:  BOARD  CONTROL 

The  rules  and  regulations  of  boards  of  education  usually 
devote  much  space  to  a  statement  of  the  powers,  duties,  and 
responsibilities  of  the  superintendent  of  instruction.  He  is 
usually  made  the  real  head  of  the  whole  school  system; 
rather  large  responsibilities  are  usually  placed  on  his  shoul- 
ders ;  much  liberty  of  action  is  given  to  him  in  educational 
matters,  and  his  rights  are  often  rather  carefully  stated. 
After  reading  the  "  Rules  and  Regulations  "  of  the  Board  of 
School  Directors  of  the  Portland  district,  one  is  impressed 
with  how  few  real  responsibilities  are  placed  with  the  Super- 
intendent, and  how  largely  clerical  his  duties  really  are.  In- 
stead of  his  being  the  head  of  the  school  system,  there  are 
two  heads  —  the  School  Clerk  and  the  Superintendent  of 
Schools.  Of  these  two  the  School  Clerk  has  the  larger  au- 
thority and  liberty  of  action.  Doubtless,  under  the  present 
rules,  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  could  assume  larger 
authority  than  he  seems  to  possess,  but  if  he  did  it  would  be 
because  he  did  assume  it,  and  not  because  the  board  put 
such  responsibility  upon  him,  as  they  should. 

According  to  the  rules,  all  teachers  and  janitors  in  the 
system  must  make  a  formal  written  application  to  the 
Board  of  School  Directors  each  year,  as  a  prerequisite  to 
the  retention  of  their  positions.  Such  a  requirement,  once 
common,  has  been  abandoned  almost  everywhere  today,  and 
no  doubt  this  rule  contributed  somewhat  to  the  desire  of 
the  teachers  for  the  enactment  of  the  recent  teachers'  tenure 
law.  The  board  selects  all  teachers  and  designates  their 
employment  by  schools.  The  rules  do  not  indicate  that  the 
Superintendent  has  anything  to  say  in  the  matter,  though 
the  selection  of  teachers  ought  to  be  one  of  his  most  im- 
portant functions.  In  practice,  though,  we  find  that  all  ap- 
plicants are  interviewed  by  the  Superintendent  or  one  of 


The  System  of  Supervision  43 

his  assistants,  with  whom  they  file  their  applications  in  regu- 
lar order ;  and  that  their  records  are  looked  up,  and  a  graded 
list  of  all  applicants  is  made  in  his  office.  The  members  of 
the  board  also  see  applicants,  and  naturally  form  mental 
or  written  lists  of  their  own,  for  use  in  connection  with  the 
one  prepared  by  the  Superintendent  of  Schools. 

After  employment,  the  board  in  a  way  supervises  the 
teaching  force.  All  high  school  principals  must  report  their 
assignments  of  teachers  to  the  Superintendent,  who  forthwith 
reports  to  the  board.  All  elementary  school  principals  must 
report,  in  writing,  to  the  board  twice  a  year  "  concerning 
the  efficiency  or  inefficiency  of  their  teachers,"  and  toward 
the  close  of  each  year  each  principal  is  required  to  come  be- 
fore the  board  as  a  body,  and  is  interviewed  further,  to  the 
same  end.  Special  teachers  must  also  report,  in  writing,  to 
the  board,  before  the  close  of  each  term,  as  to  the  efficiency 
of  the  teachers  under  them. 

In  dealing  with  pupils,  the  principals  must  report  all 
cases  of  corporal  punishment  to  the  board.  The  principal 
may  suspend  a  pupil  for  cause,  but  only  the  board  or  the 
Superintendent  can  restore  the  pupil  to  school.  Such  rules 
of  the  board  as  are  pertinent  must  be  read  and  explained 
to  all  pupils  the  first  week  of  each  school  month,  and,  to  en- 
sure obedience  to  this  rule,  the  principals  must  report 
monthly  whether  or  not  they  have  obeyed  it.  Fire  drills  are 
required  to  be  held  each  week,  and  these  must  be  reported 
at  once.  For  failure  to  hold  a  fire  drill,  or  to  report  the 
same,  a  fine  of  five  dollars  is  imposed  on  the  principal.  Each 
school  principal  must  hold  a  general  meeting  of  his  teachers 
every  week,  and  for  failure  to  do  so  is  fined  one  dollar.  If 
a  principal  fails  to  attend  any  meeting  called  by  the  Super- 
intendent of  Schools,  or  a  teacher  any  meeting  called  by  the 
Superintendent  or  a  principal,  or  is  late  in  arriving,  a  fine  of 
one  dollar  for  absence  and  fifty  cents  for  tardiness  is  im- 
posed. All  teachers  must  sign  a  register  on  arriving  in  the 
morning  and  at  noon,  and  if  at  all  tardy  a  fine  of  one  dollar 
is  imposed  for  each  offence.  The  board,  by  vote,  may  remit 


44  The  Portland  Survey 

such  fines  for  good  cause,  if  an  excuse  is  filed  in  writing 
with  the  School  Clerk  within  one  week.  Special  supervis- 
ors, in  visiting  buildings,  must  have  their  time  of  arrival 
and  departure  certified  to  on  a  blank  form  by  the  principal, 
and  these  certified  blanks  must  be  forwarded  to  the  office 
of  the  Superintendent  of  Schools.  Teachers,  when  not  on 
monitorial  duty  at  intermissions,  are  directed  by  rule  to 
"  remain  in  their  rooms  and  devote  themselves  to  the  dis- 
charge of  their  own  duties."  Visiting  the  room  of  another 
teacher  at  an  intermission,  except  on  school  business,  is 
strictly  forbidden.  If  a  teacher  requests  a  leave  of  absence 
to  the  end  of  a  school  year,  the  rules  provide  that  such  re- 
quest shall  be  considered  as  equivalent  to  a  resignation. 

CONCRETE  ILLUSTRATIONS:  SUPERVISORY  CONTROL 

In  passing  from  the  administration  of  the  board  to  that 
of  the  Superintendent's  office,  a  somewhat  similar  spirit 
is  found  to  pervade  the  work.  Perhaps  this  is  but  a  natural 
reflection  of  the  attitude  of  the  board.  The  uniform  course 
of  study,  presumably  drawn  up  by  the  Superintendent  and 
formally  adopted  by  the  board,  is  laid  down,  for  each  of  the 
fifty-four  parts,  by  pages  in  certain  adopted  textbooks.  The 
work  of  these  books  is  supposed  to  be  covered  by  all  teach- 
ers and  in  all  classes  of  schools.  Instead  of  allowing  alter- 
natives and  options  and  permitting  some  adjustment  to  in- 
dividual abilities  and  needs,  the  course  is  the  same  for  all. 
Uniformity  is  further  obtained  by  final  term  examinations, 
made  out  in  the  office  of  the  Superintendent  of  Schools, 
which  are  required  of  all  grades  from  the  third  to  the  ninth 
inclusive.  Four  pages  of  the  "  Rules  and  Regulations  "  of 
the  board  are  devoted  to  details  relating  to  these  term  ex- 
aminations. Regardless  of  the  differences  in  the  educational 
needs  of  the  classes  of  pupils  attending  such  schools  as  the 
Irvington  and  the  Failing,  or  the  Couch  and  the  Lents,  for 
example,  the  course  of  instruction  for  the  entire  nine  years 
is  identical  for  all  schools.  Even  in  the  day  school  for  the 


The  System  of  Supervision  45 

deaf  an  unsuccessful  attempt  is  made  to  require  the  same 
technical  instruction  for  these  special-type  children.  In  the 
trade  school,  too,  a  class  of  mature  girls,  who  had  entered 
the  school  for  work  in  the  homekeeping  arts,  was  seen  la- 
boriously trying  to  make  up  the  technical  grammar  of  the 
grades,  which  they  happened  to  have  missed.  Of  what  use 
it  would  be  to  them  when  made  up  the  principal  of  the 
school  could  not  tell  us,  and  it  would  be  hard  for  anyone 
else  to  say.  In  the  high  schools,  each  school  must  do  the 
same  work  in  each  subject,  and  the  only  chance  for  change 
seemed  to  lie  in  the  unanimous  agreement  of  all  three 
schools  and  the  approval  of  the  Superintendent  and  board. 
Such  a  plan  enables  the  poorest  and  least  progressive  teach- 
ers, principals,  and  schools  to  set  the  pace  for  the  entire 
system,  makes  no  allowance  for  differences  in  aptitude  and 
needs,  and  is  educationally  indefensible. 

In  the  supervision  of  the  work  of  instruction,  so  far  as 
we  could  find  out,  but  little  of  a  really  helpful  nature  is  pro- 
vided. The  two  assistant  superintendents,  who  divide  the 
classroom  supervision  between  them,  seemed  seldom  to  put 
themselves  in  the  attitude  of  a  fellow  teacher,  willing  to 
take  criticism  as  well  as  give  it,  but  rather  to  work  as  in- 
spectors, whose  chief  purpose  was  to  check  up  and  grade 
both  teachers  and  principals,  and  to  see  how  fully  the  course 
of  study  was  being  carried  out  and  the  rules  and  regulations 
obeyed.  This  may  seem  very  unjust  to  these  superintend- 
ents, but  such  certainly  was  the  clear  impression  of  their 
work  obtained  from  questioning  both  principals  and  teach- 
ers as  to  what  they  did  when  they  visited  the  schools.  The 
present  type  of  inspection  is  wasteful  of  time,  energy,  and 
money,  and  is  of  little  value  to  the  schools. 

Coming  still  further  down,  the  majority  of  the  principals 
seemed  lacking  in  the  essentials  of  a  good  and  helpful  leader. 
By  this  we  mean  the  ability  to  improve  and  develop  teachers 
as  teachers;  to  encourage  and  aid  them  in  their  particular 
work ;  to  advise  them  as  to  better  ways  and  methods,  and  to 
inspire  them  with  confidence  in  themselves  and  enthusiasm 


46  The  Portland  Survey 

for  the  work  of  instruction.  To  be  such  a  leader,  a  princi- 
pal must  know  the  details  of  all  phases  of  the  school  work 
as  well  as  his  teachers,  or  better ;  he  ought  to  be  able  to  take 
their  classes  from  them,  and  teach  them  as  well  as,  or  better 
than,  they  can;  and  in  methods  of  work  and  reasons  for 
doing  things,  he  ought  to  be  distinctively  their  leader. 

This  impression  was  further  confirmed  by  a  reading  of  the 
"  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Hearings,"  held  in  April  of 
this  year,  relating  to  the  cases  of  seventeen  teachers,  against 
whom  charges  of  incompetency  had  been  made  by  princi- 
pals. Some  of  these  charges  seemed  almost  trivial,  and  a 
number  seemed  to  indicate  that  the  principal  had  not  been 
in  close  and  helpful  personal  relations  with  his  teachers 
during  the  year.  For  such  conditions  the  principals  are 
perhaps  not  so  much  to  blame  as  is  the  system  under  which 
they  work.  Pressure  to  become  helpful  personal  and  edu- 
cational leaders,  rather  than  inspectors  and  custodians,  has 
never  been  put  seriously  on  them  from  above.  The  most 
efficient  supervision,  taken  as  a  whole,  seemed  to  be  in  the 
special  subjects,  where  special  supervisors  are  employed. 
Largely  freed  from  rules,  regulations,  uniformity,  and  in- 
spection, the  work  in  most  of  the  special  subjects  seemed 
to  possess  life  and  spirit. 

RESPONSIBILITY   FOR   THE    CONDITION 

This,  we  realize,  is  a  rather  severe  criticism,  but  it  is 
meant  as  criticism  of  a  system  which  ought  to  be  changed, 
and  not  of  individuals.  For  the  system  of  supervision,  as 
we  found  it,  perhaps  no  one  in  particular  is  responsible.  It 
is  doubtless  a  condition  which  has  gradually  grown  up, 
rather  than  the  product  of  the  work  of  any  one  individual  or 
individuals.  The  condition,  probably,  antedates  in  its  origin 
the  service  of  anyone  now  in  control  and  goes  back  to  the 
days  when  Portland  was  a  small  town.  Methods  once 
employed  have  tended  to  become  established,  and  the  pres- 
ent system  of  supervision  has  been  gradually  evolved. 


The  System  of  Supervision  47 

The  Survey  staff  is  not  interested  in  trying  to  fix  re- 
sponsibility for  the  condition,  and  it  would  probably  serve 
no  useful  purpose  even  if  this  could  be  done.  Our  only 
purpose  in  explaining  the  system  in  such  detail  has  been  to 
make  clear  the  need  of  certain  fundamental  changes  in  the 
system  itself. 

NEEDED    CHANGES 

The  changes  we  would  recommend  are: 

1.  That  the  powers  and  responsibilities  of  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Schools,  in  the  supervision  of  the  educational 
work,  be  greatly  enlarged  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  Board 
of  School  Directors  from  such  work ;  and  that  he  be  made 
much  more  responsible  than  heretofore  for  the  character  of 
the  instruction  in  the  schools,  for  the  work  of  his  subordi- 
nates, and  for  the  harmonious  and  successful  cooperation  of 
all  departments.     To  this  end  he  should  be  given  a  longer 
term  of  office,  and  the  selection  of  his  immediate  subordi- 
nates should  rest  very  largely  with  him.1 

2.  That  the  Superintendent,  after  such  consultation  with 
his  assistants,  the  principals  and  teachers  as  to  him  seems 
best,  be  given  full  recommending  authority  in  the  matter 
of  the  selection,  promotion,  and  dismissal  of  teachers,  the 
outlining  of  the  course  of  study,  and  the  selection  of  text- 
books and  supplementary  books  for  the  schools.    These  are 
functions  which  the  board  itself  ought  not  to  attempt  to 
exercise. 

3.  That  the  Superintendent  be  made  to  become  the  real 
educational  leader  for  the  school  system,  or  to  give  place  to 
someone  who  can.     To  this  end,  he  should  be  freed  from 
as  much  detail  and  clerical  work  as  is  possible,  and  be  ex- 
pected to  spend  his  time  in  studying  the  educational  prob- 
lem and  in  visiting  the  schools,  rather  than  in  remaining  in 

1  See  Appendix  A,  page  420. 


48  The  Portland  Survey 

his  office.  To  this  end  he  should  be  provided  with  an  auto- 
mobile, to  facilitate  his  movements  and  to  save  his  time  in 
traveling  about  over  a  city  of  such  size. 

4.  That  to  enable  the  Superintendent  to  spend  much  of 
his  time  in  the  schools,  the  position  of  assistant  to  the 
Superintendent,  for  office  work,  should  be  created.  The 
person  for  this  position  should  be  possessed  of  good  train- 
ing and  experience,  have  good  executive  ability,  and  be  paid 
a  salary  of  at  least  $2,500.  The  position  would  be  some- 
what analogous  to  that  of  a  private  secretary  to  the  presi- 
dent of  a  college  or  the  president  of  a  large  corporation. 
One  of  the  best  of  the  elementary  school  principals  might 
well  be  selected  for  such  a  position.  His  (or  her)  work 
would  be  to  do,  under  direction,  the  greater  part  of  the  office 
and  clerical  work  now  done  by  the  Superintendent,  and  to 
relieve  him  from  the  necessity  of  wasting  time  with  people 
of  little  or  no  business,  so  that  he  may  have  time  to  become 
a  real  superintendent  of  instruction  and  a  leader  of  his 
principals  and  teachers.  It  ought  to  be  the  Superintendent's 
chief  business  to  read,  study,  observe,  think,  plan,  advise, 
and  lead.  If  he  does  these  things  well,  there  is  little  chance 
of  a  city  paying  him  too  much.  If  he  does  not  or  cannot 
do  them,  he  ought  to  be  replaced  by  someone  who  can.  He 
cannot  do  these  things,  though,  and  be  much  of  an  office- 
chair,  clerical-type  of  superintendent.  The  board  cannot 
legitimately  expect  him  to  be  both,  and  so  ought  to  provide 
him  with  proper  assistance  and  force  him  to  lead  or  leave. 

With  such  an  office  assistant  to  the  Superintendent,  to 
attend  to  much  of  the  clerical  work,  neither  the  Superin- 
tendent nor  the  assistant  superintendents  ought  to  be  ex- 
pected to  keep  office  hours  in  the  afternoon  more  than  two 
or  three  days  a  week.  They  could  alternate  their  days,  and 
save  much  wasting  of  time.  Instead,  they  should  spend  the 
time  in  meeting  and  talking  with  their  principals  and  teach- 
ers, and  in  educating  them  in  the  ideas  and  ideals  which 
ought  to  dominate  the  system. 


The  System  of  Supervision  49 

5.  That  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  should  organize 
his  elementary  school  principals  and  assistant  superintend- 
ents into  an  educational  club,   for  reading  and  study  on 
topics  tending  to  improve  their  efficiency  and  enlarge  their 
views.     The  three  high  school  principals,  the  principal  of 
the  trade  school,  and  the  principals  of  any  intermediate 
schools  which  may  be  established,  ought  to  be  organized 
into  another  study  and  discussion  group.    It  certainly  ought 
not  to  be  too  much  to  expect  all  principals  to  unite  in  a 
study  of  good  educational  conditions  elsewhere,  to  read 
carefully  the  half-dozen  most  important  educational  books 
issued  each  year,  and  to  direct  the  reading  and  study  of 
two  or  three  books  by  groups  of  their  teachers.    A  doctor 
who  does  not  read  will  soon  fall  far  behind,  and  teaching  is 
much  like  medicine  in  this  respect.    Under  good  leadership 
and  direction  such  work  could  be  made  of  much  interest  to 
the  principals  and  teachers,  and  of  much  value  to  the  school 
system. 

6.  That  the  supervisory  work  of  the  department  should 
be  distributed  downward  more  than  is  now  the  case.    The 
board  should  do  much  less ;  the  Superintendent  and  princi- 
pals much  more.    Administrative  conditions  should  be  made 
such  as  to  encourage  the  development  of  executive  capacity 
on  the  part  of  many  members  of  the  department,  instead  of 
dependence  on  the  judgment  and  authority  of  a  few. 

7.  That  the  supervisory  work  of  the  department  be  changed 
in  direction  and  purpose.     This  will  also  involve  changes 
in  the  conditions  that  produce  the  present  uniformity  and 
rigidity,  chief  among  which  are  the  present  course  of  study, 
the  uniform  term  examinations,  and  the  attention  to  super- 
visory details  by  the  board  itself.     The  whole  supervisory 
system,  too,  should  largely  lose  its  present  inspectional  char- 
acter, and  be  changed  into  one  of  helpful  educational  leader- 
ship.   If  those  in  charge  of  this  service  —  assistant  super- 
intendents,   special    supervisors,    and    principals  —  cannot 


50  The  Portland  Survey 

adjust  themselves  to  such  new  purposes,  changes  in  person- 
nel should  be  made  without  unnecessary  delay. 

8.  That  an  additional  assistant  superintendent  be  ap- 
pointed.   If  the  supervisory  work  of  the  schools  is  to  be  re- 
directed along  the  lines  suggested,  the  present  staff  of  as- 
sistant superintendents  is  too  small.    The  force  of  assistant 
superintendents  ought  to  be  increased  by  adding  a  woman, 
skilled  in  the  supervision  of  the  first  four  years  of  school 
work,  to  aid  both  teachers  and  principals  in  making  the  first 
years  of  the  elementary  school  course  more  effective  and 
more  valuable.    Her  training  should  be  broad  enough  to  fit 
her  for  a  high  school  position,  but  her  experience  and  sym- 
pathies should  be  in  elementary  school  work.    The  majority 
of  pupils  in  public  schools  are  likely  to  be  girls,  and  a  very 
large  majority  of  teachers  are  women.    A  wise  and  capable 
woman  as  assistant  superintendent  not  only  can  be  of  great 
service  constructively  in  helping  to  solve  the  problem  of 
education  in  our  schools  for  girls,  but  can  simplify  some 
of  the  delicate  social  problems  that  are  troubling  us. 

9.  That  the  office  of  principal  of  both  the  elementary 
and  the  high  schools  should  be  materially  increased  in  im- 
portance, and  the  character  of  the  services  now  rendered  by 
such  officers  should  be  in  part  changed.    They  should  be  ex- 
pected to  study  the  educational  side  of  their  work  more  than 
they  do;  they  should  be  expected  to  become  more  helpful 
personal  and  professional  leaders  than  they  now  are;  they 
should  be  given  larger  authority  and  larger  liberty  in  the 
management  of  their  schools  than  they  now  possess ;  a  rea- 
sonable individuality  as  between  schools  should  be  encour- 
aged, in  place  of  the  present  evident  attempt  at  uniformity, 
and  the  principals  and  special  supervisors  should  be  expected 
to  be  responsible  to  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  for  the 
successful  conduct  of  their  schools,  and  not  to  the  Board  of 
School  Directors. 

10.  That  the  present   requirement  that  the  principals 
teach   some  particular  class  one  hour  a  day  be  changed 


The  System  of  Supervision  51 

to  a  requirement  that  they  give  instruction  somewhere 
in  the  school  for  four  or  five  hours  each  week,  the  time 
to  be  distributed  among  the  different  rooms  and  subjects. 
The  present  requirement  does  not  lead  to  efficiency.  When 
the  principal  has  taught  his  present  class  one  hour  each 
day  he  feels  relieved  from  instruction  elsewhere,  and  the 
personal  growth  and  helpful  service  that  comes  from  a 
general  distribution  of  instruction  is  lost.  A  principal 
ought  to  be  able  to  teach  well  anywhere;  if  he  cannot,  the 
sooner  he  learns  the  better, 

11.  That  the  present  requirement  of  a  general  teachers' 
meeting  each  week  in  each  school  be  changed.     The  pres- 
ent meetings,  in  most  of  the  schools,  are  purely  formal 
in  character  and  are  of  little  value.     A  common  time  for 
holding  them  is  during  the  noon  recess;    they  last  but  a 
short  time ;  the  program  of  work  lacks  aim  or  purpose,  and 
many  of  them  are  a  pure  waste  of  time.     These  meetings 
ought  to  be  changed  into  real  teachers'  meetings,  with  gen- 
eral school  meetings  once  a  month,  and  grade  meetings 
oftener.    A  good  plan  for  grade  meetings  would  be  to  unite 
three  or  possibly  four  neighboring  schools.     Definite  pro- 
grams of  work  should  be  provided;  some  personal  study 
of  school  problems  should  be  expected,  and  the  study  of 
one  or  two  books  of  importance  to  teachers  ought  to  be 
made  a  part  of  the  work.    The  Superintendent  of  Schools, 
and  such  assistants  as  he  may  desire,  should  attend  the 
meetings  as  often  as  is  possible,  to  aid  and  encourage  both 
teachers  and  principals.     To  this  end  the  Superintendent 
ought  not  to  be  expected  to  keep  office  hours  in  the  after- 
noon oftener  than  two  afternoons  a  week. 

12.  That    an    additional    assistant    superintendent    of 
schools  be  provided,  to  assist  the   Superintendent  in  the 
above  work  and  to  act  as  a  critical  educational  expert  for 
the  system.     If  any  serious  attempt  is  made  to  carry  out 
the  recommendations  of  this  Report,  such  a  man  will  prove 
of  great  value  in  measuring,  testing,  and  directing.     The 


52  The  Portland  Survey 

man  for  this  position  ought  to  be  not  only  a  man  of 
practical  experience,  but  also  the  best  trained  man,  in  psy- 
chology and  education,  in  the  system,  and  he  ought  to  oc- 
cupy something  of  the  position  of  a  consulting  psychologist 
for  the  schools.  It  should  be  his  particular  function  to  study 
the  educational  problems  of  the  district  at  first  hand,  to 
check  up  the  work  of  the  schools  continually,  to  study  the 
needs  of  defectives  and  over-age  pupils,  and  to  serve  as  an 
educational  director  and  adviser  to  all  in  the  administration 
of  the  work  of  instruction.  A  salary  of  $4,000  is  not  too 
much  to  pay  for  such  a  man,  and  he  should  possess  such 
training  and  experience  as  would  fit  him  for  a  professor- 
ship of  education  in  a  good  university.  Less  money  put  on 
a  cheaper  man  is  likely  to  be  largely  wasted. 

13.  That  the  present  system  of  fines  be  abolished,  and 
judgment  and  common  sense  be  allowed  to  rule  in  their 
stead.    The  present  system  is  petty,  vexatious,  and  irritating 
to  both  principals  and  teachers ;  and  having  excuses  offered 
to  the  board  and  through  the  School  Clerk,  instead  of  to  the 
principal  or  Superintendent  concerned,  is  wrong  in  princi- 
ple.   It  was  the  unanimous  verdict  of  the  members  of  the 
Survey  that  a  good  system  of  school  administration  could 
not  be  developed  in  this  way.     Teachers  and  principals 
should  be  given  some  freedom,  and  then  be  expected  to  use 
the  freedom  wisely.     In  cases  of  apparent  omission  the 
principal  of  the  school  or  the  Superintendent  of  Instruction 
should  have  full  power  to  deal  with  the  case  in  whatever 
way  seems  best. 

14.  That  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  Board  of 
School  Directors  be  thoroughly  revised,  with  a  view  to 
bringing  them  into  harmony  with  these  recommendations. 


CHAPTER    IV 

THE  SELECTION  AND  TENURE  OF  TEACHERS 
(i)    THE  SELECTION  OF  TEACHERS 

THE  recent  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  teachers  and 
supervisory  officers  employed  in  the  Portland  school 
district  may  be  seen  from  the  following  table : 

TABLE  I 

NUMBER  OF  TEACHERS  AND  SUPERVISORS  EMPLOYED,  BY  YEARS 


Year 

Teachers 
in  Ele- 
mentary 
Schools 

Teachers 
in  High 
Schools 

Supervis- 
ory 
Officers 

Totals 

Yearly 
Increase 

1913   •    •    • 

662 

155 

86 

9°3 

73 

1912  .    .    . 

626 

140 

64 

830 

82 

1911  .    .    . 

574 

"5 

59 

748 

62 

1910  .    .    . 

535 

97 

54 

686 

61 

1909  .    .    . 

497 

82 

46 

625 

Si 

1908  .   .    . 

474 

57 

43 

574 

79 

1907  .   .    . 

424 

40 

3i 

495 

67 

1906  .    .    . 

363 

29 

26 

418 

42 

1905  •   •   • 

327 

26 

23 

376 

25 

1904  .    .    . 

308 

22 

21 

35i 

21 

1903  •    .   • 

290 

20 

2O 

330 

17 

1902  .    .    . 

258 

2O 

35 

313 

15 

1901   .   .    . 

245 

2O 

33 

298 

4 

1900  .   .   . 

240 

2O 

34 

294 

Counting  deaths,  resignations,  and  removals,  something 
over  a  hundred  new  teachers  are  needed  by  the  Portland 

53 


54  The  Portland  Survey 

school  district  at  present  each  year,  and  this  number  will 
gradually  increase. 


RECRUITMENT   AND   TRAINING 

Exceptionally  good  opportunities  for  the  recruitment  of 
an  excellent  body  of  experienced  teachers,  drawn  from  all 
parts  of  the  United  States,  are  before  the  educational  au- 
thorities of  the  city  of  Portland.  The  city  is  growing  rap- 
idly, by  reason  of  a  large  influx  of  people  from  elsewhere, 
and  a  certain  percentage  of  these  will  naturally  be  experi- 
enced teachers.  One  half  of  Portland's  total  population 
has  come  to  it  from  other  American  states,  and  most  of  this 
interstate  migration  has  been  from  states  of  the  upper 
Mississippi  Valley  —  states  in  which  normal  schools  exist 
in  large  numbers,  and  in  which  many  excellent  school  sys- 
tems are  to  be  found.  Portland,  too,  is  a  city  through 
which  many  tourists  pass,  and  the  best  of  teachers  travel  as 
much  as  their  funds  will  permit.  It  is  easy  for  them  to  ar- 
range to  stop  in  Portland  in  passing,  to  see  and  to  be  seen. 

By  reason  of  its  advantageous  location,  by  reason  of  the 
large  addition  to  the  population  from  the  Eastern  states,  and 
by  reason  of  its  good  salary  schedule  for  elementary  school 
teachers,  Portland  ought  to  be  able  to  draw  into  its  schools 
each  year  large  numbers  of  well-trained  and  experienced 
Eastern  teachers.  When  this  is  possible,  to  accept  anything 
less  'would  be  an  educational  mistake.  Portland,  as  the 
largest  city  in  Oregon,  ought  also  to  be  able  each  year  to 
attract  into  its  schools  the  best  trained  and  the  most  capable 
and  energetic  teachers  to  be  found  in  the  towns  and  smaller 
cities  of  Oregon  and  Washington.  Any  wise  educational 
policy  would  involve  a  systematic  effort  to  hunt  out,  attract, 
and  secure  such  teachers.  What  the  city  of  Portland  should 
want  is  the  best  service  its  money  will  secure;  where  the 
teacher  comes  from  is  immaterial. 

That  large  numbers  of  well-trained  Eastern  teachers  do 
apply  for  positions  in  Portland  was  evident  from  an  ex- 


Selection  and  Tenure  of  Teachers 


55 


amination  of  the  graded  list  of  applicants,  compiled  each 
year  by  the  Superintendent  of  Schools.  To  see  how  far  the 
teachers  actually  employed  had  been  drawn  from  elsewhere, 
a  tabulation  has  been  made  of  the  records  of  training  of  all 
teachers  employed,  as  printed  in  the  last  published  report  of 
the  Superintendent  of  Schools.  These  records  show  the 
following  condition: 

TABLE  II 
EDUCATION  OF  TEACHERS  EMPLOYED  IN  PORTLAND 


Teachers  Graduates  of 

Teachers  Employed  in 

Elementary 
Schools 

High 
Schools 

Portland  high  schools  only  

240 
33 

93 
26 

5 
104 

83 

21 
II 
IO 
IO 

85 
720 

10 
2 

15 

IO 
2 

33 
27 
6 
16 
o 
7 
14 
142 
862 

Other  Portland  institutions  only    

High  schools,  normal  schools  or  colleges,  elsewhere 
in  Oregon        

Same,  in  California  and  Washington     

Same,  in  the  eight  Mountain  states  

Same,  in  the  seven  west  North  Central  states     .    . 
Same,  in  the  five  east  North  Central  states     .    .    . 
Same,  in  the  three  Middle  Atlantic  states    .... 
Same,  in  the  six  New  England  states    

Same,  in  the  sixteen  Southern  states     

Training  received  in  foreign  countries   

Not  graduates  of  any  school   

Totals  

Total  teachers  listed     

This  table  makes  a  very  good  showing,  except  for  the 
large  number  of  elementary  school  teachers  (33/<3  per 
cent.)  who  are  products  of  the  Portland  schools  alone,  and 
the  other  large  number  (12  per  cent,  for  elementary  schools 
and  10  per  cent,  for  high  schools)  who  are  not  graduates 
of  any  school.  An  examination  of  the  list  shows  that  the 
latter  are  either  teachers  who  have  been  long  in  the  service, 
or  teachers  of  special  subjects  in  the  school  of  trades  or  in 


56  The  Portland  Survey 

the  high  schools.  The  large  number  of  Portland  high 
school  graduates  is  doubtless  due  to  the  teachers'  training 
courses  maintained  in  the  city  high  schools,  and  to  the  two- 
year  pupil-training  system,  following  the  high  school  course, 
but  recently  abolished  by  the  Board  of  School  Directors. 

The  policy  which  has  been  followed  of  drawing  into  the 
school  system  numbers  of  good  teachers  from  the  outside 
is  one  worthy  of  much  commendation,  and  one  which  ought 
to  be  continued  in  the  future.  Due  to  the  teaching  courses 
offered  in  the  high  schools  and  the  pupil-teacher  system  in 
the  past,  the  percentage  of  Portland  high  school  graduates 
has  crept  up  much  too  high,  especially  in  view  of  the  weak- 
ness of  the  Portland  educational  system,  as  is  pointed  out 
further  on  in  Chapters  VIII,  IX,  and  X.  For  a  few  years 
to  come  the  board  and  the  Superintendent  ought,  in  the  in- 
terests of  the  schools,  to  be  rather  reluctant  to  employ  more 
elementary  school  teachers  who  have  had  only  such  training 

as  has  been  provided  at  home. 

i 

THE   TRAINING   COURSES   FOR   TEACHERS 

The  abolishment  of  the  pupil-teacher  training  system  by 
the  Board  of  School  Directors  was  undoubtedly  wise,  and 
the  wisdom  of  further  maintaining  the  so-called  teaching 
courses  in  the  high  schools,  even  to  comply  with  the  optional 
state  law,  is  very  questionable.  Such  courses  as  are  now 
offered  give  but  a  meager  preparation  for  teaching,  and 
one  wholly  inadequate  for  large  city  needs.  Due,  however, 
to  the  fact  that  the  graduates  from  such  a  course  receive 
a  state  teacher's  certificate,  under  which  they  may  teach 
two  years,  they  may  easily  go  out  and  obtain  the  required 
two  years  of  experience  in  the  country,  under  much  poorer 
supervisory  conditions  than  existed  in  the  city  under  the 
old  pupil-teacher  training  system,  and  then  return  and  be- 
come candidates  for  positions  and  exert  pressure  to  get 
them.  The  district  thus  runs  a  constant  danger  in  contin- 
uing these  courses.  It  would  be  very  much  better  if  all 


Selection  and  Tenure  of  Teachers  57 

such  prospective  teachers  first  graduated  regularly  from  the 
high  school,  and  then  spent  two  years  in  a  good  normal 
school,  making  adequate  professional  preparation  for  teach- 
ing. Then,  after  some  experience  in  the  towns,  many 
such  would  make  desirable  future  teachers,  and  might  be 
employed  with  safety  by  the  school  authorities.  Under 
current  conditions,  however,  the  present  high  school  teach- 
ing courses  serve  largely  to  open  the  way  for  home  girls  to 
enter  the  schools  as  teachers  on  meager  and  inadequate 
preparation,  and  hence  do  more  harm  than  good. 

COMMON    DEFECTS    OF   SUCH    COURSES 

One  great  trouble  with  all  such  local  training  schemes  is 
that  they  are  too  easy  to  get  through,  and  inevitably  result 
in  an  in-breeding  process  which  sooner  or  later  saps  the 
vigor  and  independence  of  the  school  system.  Having  fin- 
ished the  inadequate  course  of  training  provided,  the  grad- 
uates expect  jobs  in  the  schools,  and  the  schools,  unable  to 
offer  any  good  reason  why  they  should  not  take  what  they 
have  graduated,  are  gradually  filled  up  with  such  material 
to  the  exclusion  of  better  teachers  from  outside.  The  girls 
who  take  the  training  may  be  good  enough  as  prospective 
material,  but  the  course  of  training  usually  provided  is  so 
absolutely  inadequate  that  it  does  not  give  the  necessary 
breadth  of  view  or  the  proper  professional  conceptions. 
The  old  Portland  plan  was  of  this  class,  in  that  it  prepared 
its  graduates  only  for  the  type  of  instruction  which  they  had 
seen  and  gone  through  in  the  Portland  schools.  They  ob- 
tained from  it  no  adequate  educational  conceptions,  no  com- 
parative standards,  and  no  broad  outlook  on  the  problems 
of  education,  and  mechanized  the  process  of  teaching  rather 
than  reasoned  it  out. 

Furthermore,  it  is  an  almost  necessary  part  of  a  teacher's 
preparation  to  go  away  from  home  for  at  least  part  of  her 
training;  to  come  in  contact  with  other  schools  and  other 
methods  of  work,  and  to  learn  to  think  for  herself  by  rub- 


58  The  Portland  Survey 

bing  up  against  the  differing  opinions  of  other  people.  The 
home  girl,  to  be  the  equal  of  the  girl  from  elsewhere,  must 
have  experienced  a  training  in  an  excellent  city  normal 
school,  under  masters  who  are  unusually  broad.  This  the 
old  Portland  system  did  not  provide,  and  it  was  the  feeling 
of  the  members  of  the  Survey  staff  who  inquired  at  all  into 
the  matter,  that  the  poorest  teachers  seen  in  the  schools  were 
the  products  of  this  high-school-trained  and  pupil-teacher 
system. 

TRAINING  VS.    ATTRACTING   TEACHERS 

The  city  of  Portland  is  at  present  too  small  to  warrant 
the  expense  of  maintaining  a  first-class  city  normal  school, 
and  anything  else  it  would  be  foolish  to  maintain.  A  first- 
class  normal  school  ought  to  be  as  well  equipped  as  a  first- 
class  high  school,  and  ought  to  cost  as  much  to  maintain.  It 
ought  to  be  distinctively  a  leader  in  the  city's  educational 
system,  setting  standards  and  giving  tone  to  the  whole 
school  system.  When  Portland  comes  to  have  a  million 
people,  such  a  school  might  prove  to  be  desirable,  but 
at  present  the  expense  is  unwarranted.  Even  then  it  prob- 
ably would  be  wiser  and  cheaper,  and  probably  would  result 
in  a  better  output,  if  a  working  agreement  to  give  such  prepa- 
ration for  the  city  were  made  with  Reed  Institute,  after 
some  such  plan  as  is  now  carried  out  in  Cincinnati  and  Pitts- 
burg  with  the  universities  located  in  these  two  cities.  For 
the  present  it  would  be  much  wiser  to  add  another  assistant 
superintendent  of  schools,  to  help  look  after  new  teach- 
ers and  to  act  as  an  educational  critic  and  student  for  the 
system,  as  is  suggested  in  the  preceding  chapter,1  and  apply 
on  his  salary  the  money  which  is  now  being  spent  on  high 
school  teaching  courses. 

Instead  of  trying  to  train  its  own  teachers  the  school  dis- 
trict should  aim  to  attract  to  its  schools  the  best  teachers 
from  elsewhere  —  near  or  far.  If  its  own  girls  can  prove 

1  See  page  48. 


Selection  and  Tenure  of  Teachers  59 

themselves  to  be  superior  teachers,  they  should  be  drawn 
back  to  the  city  by  means  of  better  salaries.  They  should 
distinctly  prove  themselves  to  be  such  elsewhere,  however, 
before  coming  into  the  Portland  system.  The  Portland 
schools  in  no  way  exist  for  the  purpose  of  providing  teach- 
ing positions  for  Portland  girls,  and  Portland  girls  should 
enter  the  work  on  the  same  basis  as  girls  from  elsewhere. 
In  the  same  way  the  best  trained  teachers  from  the  best 
Eastern  normal  schools  and  city  school  systems  ought  to  be 
attracted  to  the  Portland  schools,  and  anything  which  would 
tend  to  impede  or  prevent  their  entry  ought  to  be  discour- 
aged. The  best  teachers  in  the  system  today,  taken  as  a 
body,  are  these  Eastern  teachers,  and  the  way  ought  to  be 
kept  open  for  more  of  them  to  enter. 

THE   SUPERINTENDENT   AND   THE   EMPLOYMENT   OF 
TEACHERS 

A  city  the  size  of  Portland  ought  also  to  give  to  its  Su- 
perintendent the  power  to  hunt  up  good  teachers  from  else- 
where and  to  invite  them  to  enter  the  school  system  without 
waiting  for  a  formal  application.  The  cities  which  handle 
their  schools  best  give  such  authority  to  their  Superin- 
tendent, putting  the  selection  of  teachers  for  the  schools  on 
much  the  same  basis  as  that  on  which  colleges  and  univer- 
sities place  the  selection  of  their  professors.  A  university 
president  who  did  not  feel  that  he  had  almost  full  au- 
thority to  hunt  out  men  and  invite  them  to  come  to  his  in- 
stitution would  think  himself  in  a  very  undesirable  predica- 
ment, and  probably  would  resign  and  leave.  The  strength 
of  the  colleges  and  universities  has  come  largely  as  the 
boards  of  trustees  have  placed  the  full  burden  of  selecting 
professors  and  fixing  their  salaries,  within  certain  limits, 
upon  the  president  of  the  institution,  the  board  merely 
formally  ratifying  his  actions  in  such  matters. 

In  our  best  managed  city  school  systems  similar  condi- 
tions prevail  today,  and  superintendents  feel  authorized  to 


60  The  Portland  Survey 

offer  promising  teachers  positions  without  consulting  their 
boards  of  school  directors  first,  and  having  to  go  over  the 
whole  matter  with  them.  As  was  stated  in  Chapter  III, 
this  is  the  work  which  a  board  of  school  directors  knows 
least  how  to  handle;  the  work  where  they  make  the  most 
serious  blunders,  and  often  without  knowing  that  they  have 
blundered;  the  work  where  they  create  the  most  bitter  an- 
tagonism, and  the  work  which  they  ought  to  let  alone.  If 
there  are  any  expert  functions  which  a  superintendent  of 
schools  ought  to  handle  they  are  the  outlining  of  the  courses 
of  study,  the  selection  of  the  textbooks  and  supplemental 
books  to  be  used,  and  the  recommendation  of  teachers  for 
employment,  promotion,  and  dismissal.  He  may  make  some 
mistakes  in  such  matters,  but  when  he  does  he  will  try  to 
correct  them;  a  board  in  handling  such  matters  will  make 
many  blunders,  and  scarcely  know  that  they  have  blundered. 
A  superintendent  who  knows  his  work  has  a  definite  educa- 
tional policy  in  such  matters ;  a  board  usually  has  no  policy, 
and  vacillates  to  and  fro  in  response  to  popular  pressure. 

In  selecting  good  teachers  for  the  schools  a  superintendent 
of  schools  who  knows  his  business  is  rendering  one  of  the 
most  expert  services  he  can  render  a  city.  He  should  be 
given  plenty  of  opportunity  to  exercise  his  judgment,  and 
in  resisting  the  pressure  of  the  friends  of  the  less  compe- 
tent he  should  be  uniformly  upheld.  If  he  cannot  do  these 
things  wisely  and  well  he  ought  to  give  place  to  someone 
who  can,  but  the  board  ought  not  to  assume  such  functions 
themselves.  It  would  be  a  most  wholesome  sign  of  strength 
in  the  Superintendent  of  Schools,  and  a  good  omen  for  the 
school  system  of  Portland,  if,  while  admitting  the  legal 
rights  of  the  board  in  the  matter,  he  were  seriously  to  chal- 
lenge their  educational  right  to  select  any  teachers  for  the 
system  whom  he  did  not  recommend.  He,  in  turn,  if  he  is 
wise,  will  confer  with  his  principals,  and  in  the  high  schools 
and  the  trade  school  the  principals  should  be  entrusted  with 
rather  large  authority  in  the  recommendation  to  the  Superin- 
tendent of  teachers  for  their  schools.  In  cases  where  there 


Selection  and  Tenure  of  Teachers  61 

are  good  heads  of  departments,  the  principal  and  Superin- 
tendent should  make  them  feel  that  their  advice  also  is 
wanted.  While  the  Superintendent  must  finally  pass  on  the 
recommendations  and  transmit  proper  ones  to  the  board  for 
action,  he  will  be  wise  if  he  seeks  the  advice  of  his  subordi- 
nates. All  such  responsibility  tends  to  develop  strength  and 
character  in  the  school  system. 

THE   EFFECT   OF   BOARD   CONTROL 

That  the  Board  of  School  Directors  for  the  Portland 
school  district,  past  and  present,  has  not  handled  the  selec- 
tion of  teachers  in  such  a  manner  as  to  develop  such  strength 
and  character  in  the  system  was  evident  from  the  inquiries 
and  examinations  which  we  made.  Their  deep  interest  in 
the  management  of  the  schools  has  led  them  astray,  and 
wholly  unintentionally  they  have  played  too  prominent  a 
part.  Superintendents,  principals,  and  heads  of  depart- 
ments in  the  high  schools  alike  left  the  impression  with  us 
that  they  had  but  little  to  say  as  to  the  selection  of  their 
working  staffs.  The  effect  of  such  board  activity  will  al- 
most inevitably  show  itself  in  the  schools,  and  we  found 
plenty  of  such  evidence  there. 

We  saw  some  most  excellent  teachers;  many  very  good 
teachers;  some  others  who,  with  proper  help  and  under 
proper  pressure,  might  still  be  made  into  good  teachers; 
and  a  certain  number  of  others  who,  it  seemed  to  us,  ought 
never  to  have  been  employed  at  all,  and  certainly  ought 
not  now  to  be  retained.  They  lacked  teaching  personality, 
energy,  force,  and  adaptability  to  the  work  of  instructing 
children.  To  a  trained  eye  this  was  evident  after  a  few 
moments'  observation.  In  some  kinds  of  schools,  and  in 
some  places,  they  might  prove  fairly  satisfactory,  but  the 
city  of  Portland,  for  the  salaries  it  pays  and  with  the  work 
it  has  to  do,  ought  to  have  very  much  better  material. 

We  tried,  in  many  cases,  to  find  out  more  about  such 
teachers.  Sometimes  no  one  seemed  to  know  how  they  got 


62  The  Portland  Survey 

into  the  school  system.  Many  times  the  pupil-teacher  sys- 
tem was  to  blame  for  their  being  there.  Other  times  a  prin- 
cipal would  tell  us,  in  semi-confidence,  that  the  teacher  was 
supposed  to  be  Director  X's  or  Y's  protegee ;  or  a  head  of  a 
department  in  a  high  school  would  decline  responsibility  for 
the  conditions  found,  on  the  ground  that  his  or  her  recom- 
mendations had  been  ignored  by  the  Superintendent  and 
board.  The  following  conversation  with  an  elementary 
school  principal,  which  is  from  notes  made  afterward,  is 
typical  of  a  number  of  such  conversations : 

Q.  "  Do  you  consider  Miss  A,  in  room  No.  X,  a  good  teacher?  " 

A.  "No." 

Q.  "Do  you  consider  her  a  reasonably  satisfactory  teacher,  then?" 

A.  "No,  I  can't  say  that  I  do." 

Q.  "Can  you  make  her  into  a  satisfactory  teacher?" 

A.  "I  doubt  if  that  can  be  done." 

Q.  "  Have  you  ever  called  the  attention  of  the  Superintendent  to  her  work?  " 

A.  "I  have  the  Assistant  Superintendent." 

Q.  "What  does  he  do,  or  suggest?" 

A.  "Nothing." 

Q.  "The  Board  calls  you  before  it  each  year,  for  reports  on  your  teachers, 
does  it  not?" 

A.  "Yes." 

Q.  "Have  you  ever  reported  the  woman  as  unsatisfactory?" 

A.  "Yes,  twice." 

Q.  "What  was  done  then?" 

A.  "Nothing." 

Q.  "  Did  the  Superintendent  approve  or  disapprove  of  your  adverse  report?  " 

A.  "I  don't  know;  he  said  nothing  while  I  was  present." 

Q.  "Have  you  reported  adversely  against  any  other  teacher?" 

A.  "Yes." 

Q.  "What  happened  then?" 

A.  "Once  a  teacher  was  transferred  to  another  building;  another  time  the 
Board  dropped  the  teacher,  and  then  reinstated  her,  when  she  got  her  friends 
busy,  and  put  her  back  in  my  school;  another  time  I  was  virtually  put  on  trial 
to  prove  my  charges,  instead  of  the  teacher  being  dropped;  and  in  two  or  three 
other  cases  the  teacher  was  continued  in  the  school,  apparently  with  no  action 
taken.' 


Q. 

tions?' 
A. 
Q. 


'Then  the  Board  doesn't  pay  much  attention  to  your  recommenda- 

'I  have  never  felt  that  it  did." 

'  What  is  the  object  in  calling  you  before  it  each  year,  for  reports  as  to 


your  teachers?" 


Selection  and  Tenure  of  Teachers  63 

A.  "I  don't  know." 

Q.  "Are  you  exceptional,  in  this  respect,  among  the  school  principals?" 

A.  "I  don't  think  so;  I  think  I  fare  as  well  as  the  average  principal." 

Q.  "Do  you  have  anything  to  say  as  to  the  selection  of  your  teachers?" 

A.  "Practically  nothing." 

Q.  "  Do  you  report  against  many  teachers  each  year?  " 

A.  "No,  I  have  practically  ceased  to  report  against  teachers,  unless  they 
are  very  unsatisfactory." 

Q.  "Why?" 

A.  "Because  I  never  know  whether  or  not  it  will  do  any  good,  and  I  don't 
want  to  make  enemies,  or  needlessly  put  myself  on  trial." 

Q.  "Do  the  principals  generally  feel  that  the  Superintendent  supports  them 
in  their  adverse  recommendations,  or  not?  " 

A.  "We  don't  feel  that  he  has  much  more  to  say  about  the  matter  than  we 
have." 

Q.  "Would  you  feel  that  you  could  improve  the  instruction  in  your  school, 
and  make  a  better  school,  if  the  Board  and  the  Superintendent  placed  more  au- 
thority and  responsibility  on  you,  and  held  you  responsible  for  the  successful 
conduct  of  your  school?  " 

A.  "There  is  no  doubt  as  to  that." 


GOOD   RULES  OF  ACTION 

The  following  principles  and  rules  of  action,  principles 
and  rules  evolved  from  the  best  experiences  of  other  cities, 
ought  to  apply  to  the  selection,  promotion,  and  retention  of 
teachers  in  a  city  such  as  Portland : 

1.  The  schools  exist  solely  for  the  education  of  children, 
not  to  afford  places  for  teachers.     Only  the  best  education 
should  be  provided,  and  the  best  education  can  be  provided 
only  when  the  best  teachers  obtainable  are  in  the  schools. 

2.  The   question   of   where   a   teacher   comes   from   is 
absolutely  immaterial,   and   "  home  girls "   have  no  prior 
claim  whatever  to  the  positions.    The  schools  exist  to  carry 
out  a  state  purpose,  and  should  not  be  made  local  family 
affairs. 

3.  The  selection  of  teachers  is  a  professional  function, 
which  professional  experts  ought  to  handle.    The  Board  of 
School  Directors  is  not  competent  to  handle  such  a  function 


64  The  Portland  Survey 

in  the  best  manner,  and  poor  results  almost  invariably  fol- 
low their  attempt  to  do  so. 

4.  In  the  case  of  the  Portland  school  district,  the  Board 
of  School  Directors  should  refuse  longer  to  take  the  initia- 
tive in  the  selection,  promotion,  or  dismissal  of  teachers, 
principals,  or  supervisors,  or  to  see  candidates  for  such 
positions,  but  should  instead  act  only  upon  the  recommenda- 
tion of  the  Superintendent  of  Schools.    The  final  responsi- 
bility for  all  such  actions  ought  to  be  put  squarely  on  his 
shoulders.     If  he  cannot  handle  this  wisely  and  well,  then 
he  should  soon  give  place  to  someone  who  can. 

5.  The  board  should  also  cease  to  give  hearings  to  prin- 
cipals and  supervisors,  or  require  reports  as  to  teachers  from 
them.     All  matters  relating  to  instruction  should  be  re- 
ferred to  the  Superintendent  and  his  assistants ;  principals  of 
schools  should  deal  with  them,  and  not  with  members  of  the 
board. 

6.  The  board  should  also  cease  to  interview  candidates 
for  positions,  or  permit  themselves  to  be  interviewed  by 
candidates,  or  their  friends.    In  some  of  our  best  organized 
cities  the  boards  have  had  it  printed  on  the  back  of  every 
application  blank  that  applicants,  or  their  friends,  are  not 
privileged  to  call  on  the  board  members  individually  to 
press  their  claims  for  appointment,  and  that  the  doing  so, 
or  the  attempt  to  employ  any  personal,  political,   social, 
or  religious  influence  to  secure  an  appointment,  will  be  re- 
garded as  unprofessional  conduct  and  will  debar  the  candi- 
date from  further  consideration. 

7.  The   recommendation  of   teachers   for   appointment 
should  come  solely  from  the  Superintendent  of  Schools.    In 
selecting  those    for   recommendation,   the    Superintendent 
ought  to  provide  that  rather  large  consultative  authority 
should  be  given  to  the  principals,  heads  of  departments  in 
the  high  schools,  trade  school,  and  the  special  supervisors, 


Selection  and  Tenure  of  Teachers  65 

and,  in  lesser  degree,  to  the  principals  of  the  elementary 
schools. 

8.  Because  of  the  specialization  of  work  in  the  high 
schools  and  in  the  trade  school,  all  teachers  for  these  schools 
should  be  selected  with  reference  to  their  ability  to  fill  cer- 
tain particular  positions.     The  same  conditions  ought  also 
to  apply  to  the  selection  of  teachers  for  such  intermediate 
schools  as  may  be  created. 

9.  For  the   selection  of  teachers   for  the  elementary 
schools  one  of  two  plans  might  be  followed:  either   (i) 
the  Superintendent  of  Schools  should  select  teachers  for 
recommendation  to  the  board  from  a  comparative  list  of 
applicants,  compiled  somewhat  as  such  lists  have  been  in  the 
past;  or  (2)  the  Superintendent  could  constitute  the  assist- 
ant superintendents  and  two  or  three  principals,  together 
with  himself,  an  examining  committee  to  meet  formally 
all  applicants,  at  designated  times,  such  as  Saturday  morn- 
ings during  certain  months,  to  pass  on  their  apparent  per- 
sonality and  fitness  for  teaching.     Each  member  of  the 
committee  would  mark  in  percentage  his  estimate  of  the 
fitness  of  each  person  so  met.    The  professional  preparation 
and  experience  of  each  would  be  looked  up  carefully  by  the 
clerk  to  the  Superintendent,  under  his  direction,  and  the 
average  of  the  two  kinds  of  evidence  would  form  the  can- 
didate's rating  on  the  list  of  applicants,  from  which  nomi- 
nations for  appointment  would  be  made  by  the  Superin- 
tendent. 

The  advantage  of  such  a  plan  as  the  second  is  with  the 
local  applicants,  as  it  tends  to  eliminate  entirely  personal, 
social,  or  political  influence  in  the  selection  of  teachers,  and 
to  place  local  applicants  on  a  par  with  those  from  a  distance ; 
its  disadvantage  is  that,  unless  the  committee  meets  during 
the  summer,  or  delegates  the  Superintendent  to  act  for  it, 
some  of  the  best  of  the  eastern  teachers  would  be  cut  out 
by  it. 


66  The  Portland  Survey 

10.  No  one  should  be  employed  who  is  not  certified  to  by 
the  health  supervisor,  or  some  physician  designated  by  the 
board,  to  be  sound  in  health,  of  sufficient  bodily  vigor  to 
do  effective  teaching,  and  free  from  hearing  defects  and 
any  communicable  disease.    The  Superintendent  should  sat- 
isfy himself  that  the  applicant  is  of  high  personal  character.1 

11.  For  admission  to  candidacy  for  a  position  in  the 
schools,  the  city  might  reasonably  require  of  all : 

(a)  For  elementary  schools.    Either  (i)  graduation 
from  a  four-year  high  school  course,  or  its  equivalent, 
followed  by  graduation  from  a  standard  normal  school 
and  one  year  of  actual  teaching  experience;    or   (2) 
graduation  from  a  four-year  high  school  course  or  its 
equivalent,  followed  by  two  years  of  distinctly  success- 
ful teaching  experience,  and  some  evidence  of  profes- 
sional training  and  study. 

(b)  For  intermediate  schools,  should  such  be  estab- 
lished,    (i)  As  for  elementary  schools,  followed  by  at 
least  two  years  of  college  work,  with  preparation  in 
special  branches  to  be  taught;   or,  still  better,  (2)  col- 
lege graduation,  with  practice-teaching  experience  or 
one  year  of  classroom  experience;   or  (3)  the  promo- 
tion of  eminently  successful  teachers  within  the  system, 
favoring  those,  other  things  being  equal,  who  have  had 
a  year  or  two  of  college  work,  .or  who  -have  traveled 
abroad. 

(c)  For  high  schools.    Graduation  from  a  college  or 
university  of  standing,  and  evidence  of  special  prepara- 
tion for  the  particular  work  to  be  done. 

(d)  Certification.     Instead  of  examining  teachers, 
as  is  now  done,  it  might  be  much  wiser  to  rely  entirely 
on  the  state  or  county  certification  and  save  the  energy 
now  expended  in  conducting  a  separate  examination. 
If  some  examination  is  felt  to  be  desirable,  the  legal 
certificate  now  required  by  law  could  be  presupposed, 

1  See  also  Chapter  XIV,  page  360. 


Selection  and  Tenure  of  Teachers  67 

and  the  examination  be  made  strictly  professional  in 
character. 

12.  After  employment,  the  Superintendent  and  Board  of 
Directors  might  reasonably  expect  all  teachers  and  princi- 
pals to  do  some  studying  each  year,  after  some  such  plan 
as  is  suggested  in  recommendation  n,  under  Chapter  III,1 
as  a  means  of  maintaining  the  efficiency  of  the  system. 
The  board  might  also  with  propriety  require  teachers  who 
are  deficient  in  education  and  training  to  improve  their 
scholarship  in  designated  subjects  (as,  for  example,  the 
sciences,  agriculture,  or  special  branches),  with  a  view  to 
being  able  to  give  better  instruction  in  such  subjects  in  the 
schools.  The  board  might  also  with  propriety  provide  some 
or  all  of  such  instruction  for  its  teachers,  or  arrange  with 
some  institution,  such  as  Reed  College,  to  do  so  for  it. 

(2)    TENURE  OF  TEACHERS 
THE  NEW  PERMANENT-TENURE  LAW 

The  Board  of  School  Directors  for  the  Portland  school 
district  could  carry  out  all  of  these  principles  in  the  selec- 
tion of  teachers  under  the  law  as  it  now  is ;  but  if  it  were  to 
attempt  to  dismiss  any  teachers,  except  for  open  immorality 
or  rank  insubordination,  the  board  would  find  itself  face 
to  face  with  a  new  law,  passed  by  the  last  Oregon  legis- 
lature, which  provides  for  practically  permanent  tenure  for 
all  teachers,  principals,  and  supervisors.  This  law  applies 
only  to  the  Portland  school  district,  and  not  to  any  other 
school  district  in  Oregon.  It  is  an  example  of  vicious  spe- 
cial legislation,  under  the  guise  of  a  general  law. 

This  new  law  provides  that  teachers,  after  two  years 
of  service,  cannot  be  dismissed  except  after  formal  trial 
before  the  board,  and  with  formal  written  charges  served, 
notices  of  trial,  and  attorneys  present.  This  means  that  the 
person  (Superintendent  or  principal)  bringing  the  charges, 

1  See  page  51. 


68  The  Portland  Survey 

and  each  supervisory  officer  endorsing  them,  will  be  put  on 
trial  by  the  accused  teacher's  attorney,  and  not  the  teacher 
herself  or  himself.  Almost  any  attorney  can  create  enough 
errors,  during  the  trial  before  the  board,  on  which  to  ap- 
peal to  the  courts  if  the  board  dismisses  the  teacher,  with 
almost  a  certainty  that  the  courts  will  regard  the  prepon- 
derance of  common  evidence  and  the  technical  flaws  as  more 
important  than  the  professional  evidence  and  the  interests  of 
the  children  in  the  schools.  The  almost  certain  result  is 
reinstatement,  with  full  back  pay.  The  law  is  not  essen- 
tially different  from  the  San  Francisco  or  the  Baltimore 
laws,  and  the  school  boards  in  both  places  have  practically 
given  up  trying  to  dismiss  anyone,  however  incompetent  he 
may  be.  The  result  in  these  systems  has  been  bad,  very 
bad,  and  the  same  result  will  inevitably  come  in  time  to 
Portland  if  this  thoroughly  unwise  law  is  not  repealed. 

In  securing  this  law,  the  teachers  of  the  city  have  doubt- 
less been  prompted  by  what  they  have  regarded  as  rank  in- 
justice. As  was  pointed  out  in  the  preceding  chapter,  the 
system  of  supervision  has  been  inspectional  rather  than 
helpful;  the  principals  have  too  often  lacked  the  helpful 
qualities  which  principals  ought  to  possess ;  the  secret  semi- 
annual written  reports  of  the  principals  to  the  board  on  the 
efficiency  of  their  teachers,  and  the  formal  annual  confer- 
ences with  the  board  to  the  same  end,  have  served  to  keep 
teachers  in  a  state  of  nervous  tension;  the  requirement  of 
an  annual  application  from  each  teacher,  as  a  prerequisite 
to  retention,  has  doubtless  been  very  irritating  to  many, 
and  the  formal  annual  election,  with  the  constant  fear  of 
being  dropped,  has  tended  to  aggravate  the  situation.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  Board  of  School  Directors  has  not  ac- 
corded the  teachers  in  the  schools  as  much  permanence  of 
tenure  as  is  given  to  steam  or  electric  railroad  employees, 
clerks  in  stores  or  offices,  or  general  business  employees. 
Such  persons  do  not  have  to  apply  over  and  over  to  hold 
their  places,  nor  stand  the  chances  of  an  annual  reelection. 
Neither  do  policemen,  firemen,  or  city  hall  employees.  In 


Selection  and  Tenure  of  Teachers  69 

the  schools,  however,  instead  of  the  burden  of  dismissal 
for  cause  being  placed  on  the  Superintendent  and  the  board, 
every  teacher  has  been  automatically  out  of  a  position  at 
the  end  of  each  year,  and  the  whole  burden  of  getting  re- 
elected  has  been  placed  on  the  teacher's  shoulders. 

From  numerous  talks  with  teachers,  principals,  and 
others,  we  were  convinced  that  the  over-activity  of  the 
board  in  the  management  of  the  teaching  force  has  been 
largely  responsible  for  the  present  law.  Actually,  the  board 
has  dropped  but  very  few  teachers  each  year,  and  after  do- 
ing so  has  turned  around  and  reinstated  from  10  to  30  per 
cent,  of  those  dropped.  The  board  has  given  the  impres- 
sion, though,  of  great  activity  in  the  matter,  and  this  has 
kept  many  teachers  in  a  state  of  needless  alarm.  When  this 
new  law  was  proposed,  it  would  have  been  well  had  the 
board  made  certain  desirable  concessions.  Perhaps  this 
unwise  legislation  could  have  been  headed  off  by  so  doing. 
It  may  be  urged,  also,  that  the  teachers  should  have  tried 
for  concessions  from  the  board,  and  not  have  rushed  to  the 
opposite  extreme  of  a  law  providing  for  practical  life  tenure. 

A   MIDDLE-GROUND   POSITION 

Between  these  two  positions  there  is  a  desirable  middle 
ground,  and  this  ought  yet  to  be  taken  by  both  sides,  and 
taken  in  the  interests  of  the  children  for  whom  the  schools 
exist.  When  a  new  teacher  enters  the  system  in  any  ca- 
pacity, she  (or  he)  should  be  under  observation  for  two  or 
three  years,  varying  somewhat  with  different  teachers,  dur- 
ing which  time  there  should  be  an  annual  reelection.  After 
this  probationary  period,  he  or  she  should  then  either :  ( I ) 
be  reflected  for  a  period  of  years,  say  four  or  five ;  or,  per- 
haps better  still,  (2)  be  placed  on  indefinite  contract.  In- 
definite contract  would  mean  that  annual  elections  would 
cease  for  all  time;  that  no  teacher  or  principal  would  be 
dropped  except  after  being  advised  of  deficiencies  and  being 
given  a  chance  to  improve,  and  that  the  board,  after  such 


70  The  Portland  Survey 

advice  had  failed,  would  be  able  to  notify  a  teacher,  formally 
in  writing,  that  it  desired  to  terminate  the  contract  at  the 
close  of  the  school  year.  Teachers  who  did  not  receive 
such  advice  and  notice  would  never  need  to  give  a  thought 
to  the  question  of  reelection,  as  they  would  have  practically 
permanent  tenure. 

This  middle  ground  is  equally  just  to  both  sides.  The 
old  conditions  were  not  just  to  the  teachers,  and  the  new 
conditions  are  not  just  to  the  children,  who  certainly  have 
rights  as  well  as  the  teachers.  This  proposed  middle  ground 
reserves  to  the  Board  of  School  Directors  the  right,  on  the 
advice  of  its  educational  officers,  and  after  helpful  offices 
have  failed,  to  remove  quietly  from  the  schools  those  who 
are  no  longer  fit  to  be  there.  To  say  that  the  board  has 
such  power  now,  under  the  new  law  and  by  formal  trial,  is 
to  cherish  a  delusion.  The  machinery  for  such  action  is  of 
course  provided,  but  probably  it  can  seldom  if  ever  be  car- 
ried to  a  successful  conclusion.  Even  if  it  should  be,  the 
notoriety  given  and  the  bitterness  engendered  by  such  trials 
are  demoralizing  to  a  school  system,  and  ought  to  be  avoided 
by  both  teachers  and  board.  Under  the  proposed  conditions 
of  tenure  the  exercise  of  the  right  to  terminate  the  con- 
tract would  naturally  be  used  but  seldom,  for  the  reason 
that  the  whole  condition  of  employment  would  be  changed, 
but  the  retention  of  the  right  to  such  exercise  by  the  board, 
acting  on  the  advice  of  its  educational  officers,  would  be 
good  for  both  teachers  and  the  schools.  In  the  case  of  prin- 
cipals, the  right  might  need  to  be  exercised  more  frequently, 
for  in  such  positions  the  highest  efficiency  must  be  insisted 
upon. 

That  every  teacher  who  is  reasonably  efficient  today  will 
be  so  ten  years  from  now,  everyone  who  has  had  much 
to  do  with  teachers  or  understands  human  nature  knows 
will  not  be  the  case.  Good  teaching  demands  keeping  alive 
and  keeping  growing.  Teaching,  too,  is  constantly  chang- 
ing in  nature  and  scope.  Every  decade  new  needs  appear, 
and  additional  scholarship  is  demanded  of  teachers.  To 


Selection  and  Tenure  of  Teachers  71 

keep  abreast  of  needs  means  constant  growth.  A  few  teach- 
ers will  keep  themselves  professionally  alive,  even  under 
adverse  conditions;  most  teachers  do  their  best  when  well 
led,  and  when  the  conditions  favor  professional  growth; 
many  others  do  their  best  work  only  under  a  constant  spur. 
Such  is  only  human  nature,  and  teachers  are  no  exceptions 
to  human  laws.  Perhaps  one  of  the  surest  means  for  pro- 
ducing future  inefficiency  in  a  teaching  force  is  to  take  away 
the  spur  to  growth,  activity,  and  efficiency  by  providing 
life  tenure  or  its  equivalent  for  all.  A  business  so  important 
as  public  education,  where  personal  growth  is  so  necessary 
to  meet  changing  conditions,  cannot  be  successfully  con- 
ducted or  kept  efficient  on  such  a  basis  of  employment.  If 
we  want  to  develop  a  self-satisfied  and  unprogressive  teach- 
ing force,  to  ruin  our  American  public  schools,  and  even- 
tually to  turn  over  education,  for  those  who  can  afford  it, 
largely  to  the  private  and  parochial  schools,  then  a  life-ten- 
ure guarantee  for  teachers  and  principals  is  one  of  the  surest 
means  to  such  an  end.  Life  tenure  for  all  efficient  teachers 
there  should  be,  but  it  should  come  as  a  deserved  reward 
for  efficient  service,  and  not  as  a  guaranteed  right. 

As  was  stated  in  Chapter  II,  perhaps  no  more  important 
duty  rested  on  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  and  the  Board 
of  School  Directors,  during  the  past  year,  than  that  of  pre- 
venting the  permanent-tenure  law,  by  studying  the  causes, 
making  the  necessary  concessions,  and,  if  necessary,  appear- 
ing in  a  body  before  the  legislature  in  opposition ;  and  one 
of  the  most  important  duties  still  ahead  of  them  is  the  repeal 
of  this  law  and  the  enacting,  in  its  stead,  of  some  such  pro- 
vision as  is  contained  in  the  suggested  bill  in  Appendix  A.1 

RIGHT   PRINCIPLES   OF   ACTION 

In  dealing  with  the  question  of  the  tenure  of  teachers, 
certain  principles  seem  thoroughly  sound,  and  ought  to  ap- 
ply.   These  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 
1  See  page  419. 


72  The  Portland  Survey 

1.  All  new  teachers,  or  principals,  when  first  employed, 
should  be  assigned  to  positions  where  they  are  most  likely  to 
succeed  and  grow,  and  for  a  year  or  two  should  be  under  the 
special  observation  of  the  Superintendent,  his  assistants, 
and  the  principal.     The  purpose  should  be  to  make  every 
effort  to  develop  all  new  stock  into  as  strong  teaching  ma- 
terial as  possible,  and  much  depends  on  the  right  start. 

2.  If  the  first  year,  or  the  first  term,  demonstrates  a 
hopeless  condition,  and  shows  that  a  mistake  in  selection  has 
been  made,  the  Superintendent  should  be  permitted  to  ask 
for  a  resignation.     If,  on  the  contrary,  good  progress  has 
been  made  and  a  reasonable  hope  of  satisfactory  service 
exists,  another  year  of  trial  may  be  given  with  advantage. 

3.  In   case   temperamental   differences   for   which    the 
teacher  is  not  to  blame  have  interfered  with  success,  the 
teacher   should   be  given   another  chance  by  transfer  to 
another  school.    Sometimes  a  transfer,  as  a  form  of  second 
trial,  might  be  given  for  other  reasons.     All  assignments 
and  transfers  of  teachers  should  be  under  the  direction  of 
the  Superintendent  and  his  assistants,  the  board  merely  em- 
ploying teachers  for  the  district. 

4.  During  the  trial  period,  which  ought  to  cover  from 
two  to  three  years,  varying  somewhat  with  different  individ- 
uals, annual  reappointments  should  be  made,  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  Superintendent  of  Schools.     After  the 
probationary  period  has  been  passed,  either  election  for  long 
periods,  or  indeterminate  contracts,  preferably  the  latter, 
should  be  substituted  and  the  annual  election  for  such  teach- 
ers discontinued. 

Indeterminate  contracts  should  continue  from  year  to 
year,  without  any  action  on  the  part  of  either  board  or 
teacher.  Teachers  not  notified  of  deficiencies  by  the  Super- 
intendent or  principal  by,  say,  March  first,  and  further  noti- 
fied in  writing  by,  say,  June  first  that  the  board  desires  to 
terminate  the  contract  at  the  close  of  the  school  year,  would 


Selection  and  Tenure  of  Teachers  73 

be  considered  as  retained  in  service  and  need  give  no  thought 
to  the  matter  of  tenure. 

5.  The  Superintendent  ought  not  to  consider  charges  of 
general  incompetency  from  principals  against  their  teachers, 
unless  he  is  convinced  that  the  principals  have  talked  over 
the  difficulties  fully  with  their  teachers,  and  have  made  a 
persistent  effort  to  help  them  to  succeed.     If  the  weaker 
teachers  felt  that  their  principals  were  earnestly  trying  to 
help  them,  and  if  such  teachers  found  that  board  members 
refused  to  listen  to  their  complaints  and  referred  them  back 
to  the  Superintendent  of  Schools,  either  they  would  soon 
make  an  earnest  effort  to  cooperate  in  becoming  efficient, 
or  they  would  resign.     If  a  principal  cannot  or  will  not 
render  such  helpful  assistance  to  his  teachers,  his  (or  her) 
own  competency  ought  to  be  inquired  into  by  the  Super- 
intendent. 

6.  The  Board  of  School  Directors  should  discontinue 
its  present  plan  of  giving  hearings  first  to  principals,  and 
later  to  aggrieved  teachers,  and  should  concentrate  all  such 
matters  in  the  hands  of  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  and 
the   assistant   superintendents.      All   charges   of   incompe- 
tency should  be  approved  or  disapproved  by  this  body;  all 
hearings  should  be  conducted  by  them,  and  the  board  should 
accept  their  recommendations.    If  charges  of  incompetency 
are  approved,  the  Superintendent  should  be  empowered  to 
request  the  resignation  of  the  teacher  involved.    If  a  teacher 
is  transferred  for  cause,  a  request  for  a  second  transfer 
from  a  second  principal  ought,  in  most  cases,  automatically 
to  end  the  matter.     The  interests  of  the  children  in  the 
schools  are  too  important  to  allow  weak  teachers  to  be  kept 
in  the  schools  through  sympathy.     The  sympathy  is  con- 
tinually placed  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  case. 

7.  While  some  way  of  quietly  eliminating  the  unfit,  or 
those  who  will  not  keep  up  with  educational  needs,  is  essen- 
tial, if  school  systems  are  not  to  deteriorate,  it  must  never- 
theless be  remembered  that  the  great  object  in  school  ad- 


74  The  Portland  Survey 

ministration,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  teaching  force,  should 
be  to  make  as  high  a  grade  of  teacher  as  is  possible  out  of 
the  large  amount  of  medium-grade  material  which  is  em- 
ployed ;  to  keep  teachers  professionally  alive  and  growing ;  to 
stimulate  them  to  new  intellectual  and  professional  activity, 
and  not  merely  to  order  teachers  about,  dismissing  the  ones 
who  cannot  swim  alone  and  then  taking  a  new  chance. 

8.  Growth  is  painful  to  most  persons,  and  to  some  growth 
seems  impossible.     Because  of  this  perfectly  human  trait, 
a  few  dismissals,  from  time  to  time,  will  be  inevitable,  but 
the  number  of  them  ought  to  be  very  small.    If  no  dismis- 
sals are  possible,  or  possible  only  after  much  turmoil,  the 
system  will  deteriorate  and  the  taxpayers'  money  will  be 
wasted. 

9.  Once  a  teacher  is  dropped   from  the  system  after 
careful  consideration,  he  or  she  ought  not  to  be  reinstated. 
Such  action  is  almost  always  unwise,  and  its  effect  on  the 
system  is  bad. 

10.  The  board  ought  to  plan  to  enlarge  the  present  pen- 
sion system,  either  alone  or  in  connection  with  the  state, 
for  the  good  of  the  school  system  as  well  as  for  humane  rea- 
sons, and  with  a  view  to  being  able,  ultimately,  to  retire 
honorably  from  the  service  those  who  have  become  too  old 
and  have  fallen  too  far  behind  to  render  efficient  service. 
The  more  rapid  the  development  of  the  schools  in  new  di- 
rections, the  greater  will  be  the  need  of  retiring  those  who 
can  no  longer  grow. 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  SALARIES  OF  TEACHERS 

COMPARATIVE   SALARY   SCHEDULES 

THE  plan  employed  by  a  city  in  paying  its  teachers  has 
much  to  do  with  the  degree  of  efficiency  and  zeal  for 
growth  which  in  time  comes  to  characterize  a  teaching  body, 
and  a  wise  administrative  policy  will  so  regulate  the  mone- 

TABLE  III 

COMPARATIVE  SALARY  SCHEDULES  IN  WESTERN  CITIES 


City 

Teachers 

Principals 

Minimum 
Salary 

Maximum 
Salary 

Minimum 
Salary 

Maximum 
Salary 

i.  Elementary  schools 
Alameda,  Cal  

$840 
840 

744 
780 
800 
725 
600 
792 
840 
840 
600 

1080 
1  200 
1260 
1080 
960 

$1140 
1  200 
1  200 
1  200 

IIOO 

1100 

IO2O 
1032 
1224 
IIIO 

960 

1500 
1560 
1500 

I2OO 
I800 

$1620 
1320 
1  200 
1500 

1200 

1050 

1  200 
1320 
1  200 
1140 

2340 

$2160 
2280 
2400 
2400 
1900 
2150 

2004 
2260 
2040 
1800 

3000 
3000 
2400 
2004 
2460 

Berkeley,  Cal  

Los  Angeles,  Cal  
Oakland,  Cal  

Pasadena,  Cal  

PORTLAND,  ORE.     .    . 
Salt  Lake  City,  Utah     .    . 
San  Diego,  Cal  

San  Francisco,  Cal.    .    .    . 
Seattle,  Wash  

Tacoma,  Wash  

2.  Intermediate  schools 
Berkeley,  Cal  

Los  Angeles,  Cal  

Oakland,  Cal  

San  Diego,  Cal  

San  Francisco,  Cal.    .    .    . 

75 


The  Portland  Survey 


TABLE  HI  —  Continued 
COMPARATIVE  SALARY  SCHEDULES  IN  WESTERN  CITIES 


City 

Teachers 

Principals 

Minimum 
Salary 

Maximum 
Salary 

Minimum 
Salary 

Maximum 
Salary 

3.  High  Schools 
Alameda,  Cal  

$1200 

1080 

1200 

1140 

1  100 

1150 
850 
1  200 
1500 

IO2O 

810 

1500 
1800 
1800 
1560 
1440 
1700 

1710 

$1440 
1500 
1560 
1500 
1600 
1350 
1400 

1524 
1680 
1560 
1351° 

1800 

2OOO 
2l6o 
1800 
1800 
2OOO 

1600 
1600 
1692 
2040 
1800 

$3000 
3000 

2500 

2700 
2400 
1500 

$2900 
3000 
3600 
3300 

3000 

2808 
3300 
3600 
2500 

Berkeley,  Cal  

Los  Angeles,  Cal  

Oakland,  Cal  

Pasadena,  Cal  

PORTLAND,  ORE.     .   . 
Salt  Lake  City,  Utah    .   . 
San  Diego,  Cal  

San  Francisco,  Cal.    .    .    . 
Seattle,  Wash  

Tacoma,  Wash  

4.  Heads  of  departments  in 
high  schools     
Alameda,  Cal  

Berkeley,  Cal  

Los  Angeles,  Cal  

Los  Angeles  (sub-heads)    . 
Oakland,  Cal  

Pasadena,  Cal  

PORTLAND,  ORE.     ,  . 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah    .   . 
San  Diego,  Cal  

San  Francisco,  Cal.    .    .    . 
Seattle,  Wash  

tary  and  promotional  rewards  of  teachers  as  to  place  a  cer- 
tain premium  on  personal  effort  and  progress. 

The  teachers  and  principals  of  Portland  are  paid  accord- 
ing to  a  regular  salary  schedule,  the  salary  paid  being,  in 
large  part,  a  product  of  the  nature  of  the  work,  or  the  size 
of  the  school,  and  the  number  of  years  of  service.  The  be- 
ginning of  a  merit  system  exists  in  the  provision  that  the 


The  Salaries  of  Teachers  77 

maximum  salary  shall  not  be  paid  to  a  teacher  or  principal 
whose  work  is  not  satisfactory.  How  this  salary  schedule 
compares  with  the  salaries  paid  to  teachers  in  other  Pacific 
Coast  cities  may  be  seen  from  the  above  comparative 
table,  compiled  for  those  Western  and  Pacific  Coast  cities 
with  which  Portland  may  be  expected  to  compete  for  the 
best  Eastern  teachers. 


The  opinion  of  all  the  members  of  the  Survey  staff  who 
considered  the  question  of  teaching  and  salaries  was  that  the 
salaries  paid  teachers  in  Portland  were  both  too  high  and 
too  low.  For  some  of  the  teachers  seen  and  for  some  of 
the  principals,  both  in  the  elementary  schools  and  in  the  high 
schools,  the  amounts  paid  were  much  too  high  for  the  qual- 
ity of  service  at  present  rendered.  On  the  other  hand,  many 
of  those  seen  were  paid  salaries  below  their  real  worth,  and 
below  what  would  be  paid  them  for  a  similar  grade  of  work 
in  other  Western  cities. 

The  average  of  the  salaries  in  the  elementary  schools  are 
not  too  high.  Compared  with  the  salaries  of  firemen,  po- 
licemen, city  hall  employees,  and  school  janitors,  the  sal- 
aries for  elementary  teachers  are  low.  For  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades,  which  ought  to  form  the  last  two  years  of  the 
elementary  school,  and  for  the  ninth  grade,  which  ought  to 
form  the  first  year  of  the  high  school,  the  salaries  are  be- 
low what  should  be  paid  if  these  years  were  grouped  into  a 
series  of  intermediate  schools,  taught  by  well-trained  teach- 
ers according  to  a  department  instead  of  a  grade  method 
of  work.1 

For  the  high  schools,  the  salaries  are  too  low,  especially 
for  the  higher  positions,  and  these  schools  are  continually 
losing  some  of  their  most  promising  and  most  useful  teach- 
ers. The  demands  on  high  school  instructors  are  constantly 
advancing;  increased  training  is  continually  being  de- 
1  See  Chapters  IX  (pages  209  to  214)  and  XI  (pages  251  to  262). 


78  The  Portland  Survey 

manded ;  and  a  good  series  of  positions,  with  increasing  sal- 
aries, ought  to  be  provided  to  enable  the  high  schools  to 
retain  the  best  of  their  teachers.  Otherwise,  in  time,  the 
only  older  and  more  experienced  teachers  who  will  remain 
in  the  schools  will  be  the  poorest  ones  —  the  ones  who  have 
had  no  opportunities  to  go  elsewhere,  or  who  have  seen  no 
chance  of  getting  away.  These  will  fill  the  important  places 
and  block  the  way,  so  that  there  will  be  fewer  and  fewer 
chances  for  young  teachers  to  advance  to  a  position  carry- 
ing a  living  wage.  The  result  will  inevitably  be  mediocre 
high  schools. 

A    UNIFORM   SALARY   SCHEDULE 

Merely  to  advance  the  general  level  of  salaries  and  then 
continue  to  advance  all  teachers  on  the  basis  of  length  of 
service,  while  perhaps  better  than  no  increase,  is,  never- 
theless, a  poor  use  of  funds.  A  much  better  plan  is  to  place 
some  emphasis  on  education,  professional  growth,  study, 
travel,  and  skill  in  instruction,  and  to  give  the  reward  so  as 
not  only  to  pay  the  most  to  those  deserving  the  most,  but 
also  to  encourage  personal  growth  on  the  part  of  all  not 
hopelessly  dead.  In  any  large  school  system  a  plan  of  sal- 
ary rewards,  in  part  based  on  personal  growth,  is  desirable, 
and,  in  a  school  system  where  practical  life  tenure  of  em- 
ployment has  been  instituted,  some  such  plan  is  a  necessity 
if  growth  is  to  be  encouraged  and  efficiency  secured. 

The  uniform  salary  schedule  for  all  presupposes  that  all 
of  the  same  rank  and  experience  are  approximately  of  equal 
worth  —  a  condition  that  is  never  found.  Not  only  does 
such  a  condition  not  exist,  but  instead,  very  wide  variations 
in  worth  are  commonly  found  among  teachers,  often  in  the 
same  school.  Portland  is  no  exception  to  other  cities  in 
this  respect,  and  to  show  the  variations  in  ability  observed, 
the  following  extracts  from  notes  made  after  visiting  the 
work  of  certain  teachers,  are  introduced  here.  They  are 
snapshots,  to  be  sure,  but  the  judgments  are  probably  not 
far  wrong,  and  they  illustrate  well  that  differences  in  pay 


The  Salaries  of  Teachers  79 

under  the  Portland  salary  schedule  and  differences  in  worth 
are  not  one  and  the  same. 

"Teacher  A.  Good  personality,  manner,  and  attitude  toward  children. 
Does  her  work  very  conscientiously  and  reasonably  well,  but  without  much 
apparent  insight  or  reason  why.  An  average  teacher  now,  but  with  the  right 
kind  of  help  from  her  principal  or  the  assistant  superintendent  might  become 
a  most  excellent  teacher.  Left  to  herself  she  has  about  reached  her  limit,  and 
in  another  ten  years  will  be  worth  less  than  now.  Present  salary  $1,050.  Not 
worth  over  $900  now,  but  could  be  made  to  be  worth  $1,200  to  $1,300  with 
proper  aid,  encouragement,  and  study.  Present  efficiency  about  80  per  cent, 
and  probably  declining  slowly." 

"Teacher  B.  Work  highly  mechanical  and  entirely  lacking  in  intelligent 
insight.  Does  things  because  they  are  in  the  books,  and  without  a  reason  why. 
Work  seen  very  weak.  Poor  manner;  poor  voice;  slow,  and  generally  ineffi- 
cient. Pupils  apparently  making  poor  progress,  and  apparently  copying  her 
slow  and  inefficient  manner.  Product  of  the  pupil-teacher  system.  Knows 
nothing  else,  and  probably  now  too  set  in  her  ways  ever  to  be  made  into  any- 
thing more  than  a  very  mediocre  teacher.  Present  efficiency  about  40  per  cent, 
of  what  her  pay,  $1,050,  ought  to  purchase  for  the  city.  In  many  systems  she 
would  not  be  retained,  and  no  efficient  superintendent  elsewhere  would  employ 
her." 

"Teacher  C.  One  of  the  best  teachers  seen  here  or  elsewhere.  Quick; 
alive;  good  restrained  energy;  good  sense  of  humor,  and  does  her  work  with 
despatch.  Every  pupil  kept  alive  and  interested  in  the  classroom  work.  Ques- 
tions and  answers  from  the  class  showed  that  they  were  being  trained  to  reason. 
Paid  $1,100  and  worth  $1,500  at  least.  Would  make  an  excellent  intermediate 
school  teacher.  Efficiency  100  per  cent. ;  in  fact  more  efficient  than  a  city  might 
reasonably  expect.  A  mature  woman,  professionally  alive." 

"Teacher  D.  Poor  material;  poor  voice;  slow;  heavy;  inefficient  worker. 
Might  do  very  well  in  the  country,  for  she  seemed  to  like  her  work,  but  her 
reaction  time  is  too  slow  for  a  good  city  position.  Paid  $825,  which  is  too  much 
for  her.  Does  not  keep  the  pupils  working  up  to  50  per  cent,  of  their  possibili- 
ties, and  they  learn  bad  habits  from  her.  Another  product  of  the  pupil-teacher 
system." 

"Teacher  E.  Quick;  clever;  good  humor;  sees  everything,  but  knows  what 
not  to  see.  A  splendid  teacher.  Pupils  making  excellent  progress  under  her. 
Paid  $1,050,  and  worth  much  more;  certainly  worth  as  much  as  any  policeman 
in  the  city." 

"Teacher  F.  Mediocre  material.  Room  close  and  up  to  75°  in  tempera- 
ture, and  had  not  noticed  it.  Three  children  in  seats  where  their  feet  could  not 
touch  the  floor,  and  had  not  noticed  that.  Seemed  surprised  when  these  things 
were  called  to  her  attention.  Seemed  weak  in  organizing  ability,  and  in  ability 
to  instruct.  Very  sure  of  herself,  however,  and  seemingly  resentful  of  criticism 
from  a  man.  Too  old  now  to  be  taught  much,  and  probably  will  always  remain 


8o  Tlie  Portland  Survey 

a  mediocre  teacher.  Probably  faithful  and  conscientious,  but  professionally 
dead.  Paid  the  maximum  salary,  and  not  worth  more  than  the  minimum." 

"Teacher  G.  Head  of  a  department  in  a  high  school.  One  of  the  best 
teachers  in  the  subject  have  ever  seen.  Other  teachers  in  same  department 
seemed  equally  alive  and  vigorous.  Good  selections  by  someone.  Question- 
ing excellent,  management  of  the  class  and  room  the  same.  Every  pupil  alert 
and  watchful.  Pupils  learning  excellent  life  habits  as  well  as  subject-matter 
under  this  teacher.  Would  make  an  excellent  teacher  of  the  subject  in  a  normal 
school  or  college.  Paid  $1,600;  easily  worth  $2,000  to  $2,200." 

"  Teacher  H.  Also  head  of  a  department  in  a  high  school.  One  of  the  slow- 
est, dullest,  and  most  ineffective  teachers  have  ever  seen.  Extremely  conserva- 
tive; professionally  dead;  and  department  lacking  in  life  and  snap.  Pupils 
under  the  teacher  making  but  little  progress,  and  learning  very  bad  life  habits. 
Pupils  inattentive;  order  poor;  teaching  not  25  per  cent,  efficient.  Paid  $1,600; 
would  be  a  good  investment  for  the  city  to  give  this  teacher  $1,000  a  year  as  a 
pension,  for  past  services,  and  replace  him  by  a  man  of  energy  and  capacity." 

"Principal  X.  Excellent  principal.  Knows  his  school,  his  pupils,  and  the 
details  of  his  work  throughout.  Apparently  knows  how  to  do  executive  work 
without  getting  lost  in  the  details.  From  questions,  find  him  a  student  of  edu- 
cation, and  anxious  to  grow  and  advance.  Apparently  reads  much,  and  keeps 
himself  up  with  what  is  being  done  elsewhere.  Would  make  a  good  superin- 
tendent of  schools  in  a  smaller  city.  Paid  $1,850;  easily  worth  $2,500." 

"Principal  Y.  Has  had  training  enough  to  be  a  much  better  principal  than 
he  is.  Seems  intellectually  lazy.  School  largely  what  his  teachers  make  it. 
Supervision  of  building  and  drills  good;  of  the  work  of  his  teachers  poor.  Seems 
to  know  little  about  the  details  of  the  classroom  work.  Needs  to  be  made  to 
do  more  thinking  and  get  to  work.  Unless  the  Superintendent  does  this  soon, 
he  will  be  of  little  value  in  ten  years  more.  Paid  $1,900;  ought  to  be  transferred 
to  about  a  $1,400  school  until  he  gets  to  work  and  does  some  thinking  about 
what  he  is  there  for." 


THE   PORTLAND   TEACHING   FORCE 

Half  of  the  illustrative  cases  selected  are  of  good  teachers 
and  principals,  and  half  are  of  poor  ones.  Just  what  per- 
centage of  the  whole  teaching  force  is  of  the  poorer  type 
the  Survey  staff  cannot  say,  for  the  reason  that  they  did 
not  attempt  to  see  many  teachers  at  work.  The  above 
merely  represent  cases  seen,  and  there  are  doubtless  many 
similar  cases.  The  feeling  of  the  members  of  the  staff  was, 
however,  that  the  number  of  really  poor  teachers  in  the 
schools  was  quite  small,  and  the  number  of  really  good 
teachers  was  relatively  large;  but  that  the  remainder,  quite 


The  Salaries  of  Teachers  81 

a  considerable  body,  represented  teachers  of  average  ability, 
or  above,  from  whom  the  school  department  is  not,  at 
present,  realizing  more  than  60  to  80  per  cent,  of  their 
possible  efficiency.  This  did  not  seem  to  be  so  much  be- 
cause the  teachers  were  unwilling  as  because  of  other  con- 
ditions, inherent  in  the  kind  of  supervisory  assistance  pro- 
vided and  in  the  present  methods  of  paying  teachers.  In 
hours  of  work  and  in  the  faithful  discharge  of  assigned 
duties,  all  the  teachers  seemed  actuated  by  a  remarkably 
willing  spirit.  The  chief  defect  of  many  seemed  to  be  in 
educational  insight  and  professional  interest,  and  the  force, 
as  a  whole,  seemed  to  lack  stimuli  to  professional  activity 
and  growth. 

It  is  toward  the  awakening  of  greater  interest  and  insight 
on  the  part  of  the  teachers  and  principals,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  a  greater  personal  desire  to  keep  growing,  that  it 
seemed  to  us  that  reforms  in  dealing  with  the  teachers  in 
the  Portland  school  district  ought  to  be  directed.  Inspec- 
tion, compulsion,  and  rules  and  regulations  are  almost  value- 
less here ;  helpful  leadership  must  be  substituted  instead.  In 
Chapter  III  this  need  of  helpful  leadership  was  emphasized. 
But  helpful  leadership  can  do  only  about  so  much ;  to  help 
teachers  most  they  must  be  stimulated  to  help  themselves. 
To  assist  helpful  leadership  to  do  its  work,  both  promotions 
on  merit  and  monetary  rewards  should  be  added,  to  be  given 
to  those  who  do  most  to  increase  their  personal  efficiency 
and  to  advance  the  highest  interests  of  the  schools. 

PAYMENTS   BASED   ON    MERIT   AND   EFFICIENCY 

The  beginnings  of  a  merit  system  already  exist  in  Port- 
land in  the  provision  that,  to  reach  the  maximum  salary,  a 
teacher  or  principal  must  be  adjudged  to  be  doing  satis- 
factory work.  According  to  the  present  plan  of  marking 
teachers  (A,  B,  or  C),  this  means  either  A  or  B.  With 
the  Board  of  School  Directors  elected  for  five-year  terms, 
and  only  one  member  elected  each  year,  and  hence  with  a 


82  The  Portland  Survey 

board  not  immediately  responsive  to  any  popular  clamor 
which  objecting  teachers  might  raise,  Portland  is  especially 
well  situated  to  extend  this  merit  system  and  to  offer  its 
largest  monetary  rewards  and  best  positions  to  those  who 
do  most  to  increase  their  personal  efficiency. 

The  details  of  any  plan  for  rewarding  effort  and  growth 
ought  to  be  worked  out  with  some  care  before  its  adoption, 
but  the  following  suggestions  indicate  certain  lines  along 
which  Portland  might  do  this  by  changing  somewhat  its 
methods  of  paying  teachers  and  principals : 

Elementary  School  Teachers 

(First  six  grades,  and  seventh  and  eighth  grades  when 
conducted  as  grade  work.) 

1.  If  the  regulation  for  admission  to  the  system,  as  sug- 
gested in  Chapter  IV  (page  66),  were  put  into  force,  the 
present  minimum  salaries  are  not  too  high.    All  elementary 
school  teachers  would  then  advance  automatically,  after 
passing  the  probationary  period,  up  to  $950  or  $1,000,  at 
which  increases  would  ordinarily  stop.     All  teachers  now 
having  higher  salaries  would  retain  their  present  salaries. 

2.  Additional  automatic  increases  to  be  granted  to  all 
elementary  teachers,  as  follows : 

(a)  For  attendance  at  a  summer  session  of  a  uni- 
versity or  a  teachers'  college,  and  doing  approved  regu- 
lar work,  $25  a  year  additional  up  to  a  maximum  of 
four  summers.     All  summer  work  also  to  count  pro- 
portionally toward  required  college  work,  for  promotion 
to  other  positions. 

(b)  For  a  year  of  study,  on  leave  of  absence,  at  a 
university  or  teachers'  college,  doing  regular  work  and 
following  some  approved  course  of  study,  $50  a  year 
additional  in  salary,  and  same  to  count,  in  full,  toward 
eligibility  for  other  positions. 

(c)  For  a  year  of  study  or  travel  in  Europe,  $100 


The  Salaries  of  Teachers  83 

additional.     This  to  count  as  equivalent  to  a  year  in 
college  in  determining  eligibility  for  higher  positions. 

3.  Leaves  of  absences  for  travel  or  study  to  be  granted 
to  teachers,  without  pay,  on  their  application ;  and  the  same 
or  an  equivalent  position  to  be  guaranteed  to  them  on  their 
return. 

4.  For  faithful  and  intelligent  service  and  for  profes- 
sional growth,  additional  increase  of  $50  a  year  may  be 
recommended  for  any  teacher,  by  the  Superintendent,  on 
the  prior  recommendation  of  the  principal  of  the  school  and 
the  concurrence  of  a  majority  of  the  assistant  superintend- 
ents.    All  such  must  have  been  Class  A  teachers  for  at 
least  the  two  years  preceding,  and  such  salary  increases  for 
service  are  to  be  made  not  oftener  than  once  in  two  years. 

5.  Maximum  salary  for  elementary  teachers  in  graded 
work  to  be  $1,200. 

6.  Teachers  of  ability  who  improve  themselves  under 
any  of  the  provisions  of  2,  above,  so  as  to  comply  with  any 
of  the  requirements  for  admission  to  the  service,  as  proposed 
on  page  66,  may  be  further  advanced  in  salary  by  promotion 
to  positions  in  the  intermediate  schools,  after  such  are 
established. 

Intermediate  Schools 

(Seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  grades.  To  apply  only  to 
regularly  organized  intermediate  schools,  when  established, 
and  not  to  grade  work  under  present  conditions.) 

1.  Minimum  beginning  salary  $900;   to  increase  •au- 
tomatically, after  passing  the  probationary  period,  up  to 
$1,100. 

2.  Further  increases,  on  the  basis  of  professional  merit, 
teaching  skill,  and  additional  study,  on  the  same  basis  as 
provided  above  for  elementary  teachers,  up  to  a  maximum 
of  $1,300. 


84  The  Portland  Survey 

3.  Leaves  of  absence,  for  travel  and  study,  also  to  be 
granted,  as  above. 

4.  Teachers  of  ability,  who  improve  themselves  under 
any  of  the  provisions  given  above  for  elementary  teachers, 
so  as  to  comply  with  the  requirements  for  admission  to  the 
service  as  proposed  under  subdivision  n,  page  66,  may  be 
further  advanced  by  promotion  to  the  rank  of  assistant  in 
the  high  schools,  after  which  they  may  be  eligible  for  pro- 
motion to  the  rank  of  instructor. 

5.  Experienced  teachers  from  other  places,  entering  the 
system,  to  be  given  such  credit  for  their  experience  as  may 
be  determined. 

High  Schools 

i.  Three  grades  of  teaching  positions  to  be  provided  for 
the  regular  high  schools,  to  be  known  as  assistants,  instruc- 
tors, and  heads  of  departments,  and  to  have  the  following 
salary  ranges: 

(a)  Assistants.     To  begin  at  $900,  and  to  be  ad- 
vanced automatically  to  $1,200,  at  which  all  salary  in- 
creases would  stop,  unless  promoted  to  the  rank  of  in- 
structor.   Such  promotion  to  be  on  the  basis  of  teaching 
efficiency,  interest,  and  growth ;  on  the  recommendation 
of  the  head  of  the  department  and  the  principal  of  the 
high  school ;    and  with  the  approval  of  the   Superin- 
tendent of  Schools.    Promotion  to  the  higher  rank  may 
also  be  made  by  the  Superintendent,  by  transfer  to  a 
vacant  position  in  another  high  school. 

(b)  Instructors.    May  be  filled  by  original  appoint- 
ment, or  by  the  promotion  of  assistants  in  the  same  or 
other  high  schools.    To  begin  at  $1,200,  and  to  advance 
automatically  to  $1,500.     To  retain  desirable  teachers, 
and  for  special  merit  or  advanced  study,  the  Superin- 
tendent, on  recommendation  of  the  principal  of  the  high 
school  concerned,  may  recommend  a  further  increase 
to  $1,600. 


The  Salaries  of  Teachers  85 

(c)  Heads  of  Departments.  May  be  filled  by  orig- 
inal appointment,  or  by  the  promotion  of  instructors  in 
the  same  or  other  high  schools.  To  begin  at  $1,500, 
and  to  advance  automatically  to  $1,800.  To  retain  de- 
sirable heads  of  departments,  and  for  special  merit  or 
advanced  study,  the  Superintendent,  on  recommenda- 
tion of  the  principal  of  the  high  school  concerned,  may 
recommend  further  increases  up  to  a  maximum  of 
$2,000. 

2.  All  teachers  in  high  schools  to  be  granted  leaves  of 
absence  for  study,  as  other  teachers.  For  a  year  of  gradu- 
ate study  in  their  special  field  of  work,  in  an  approved 
American  or  European  university,  all  instructors  and  heads 
of  departments  to  be  granted  $100  increase,  in  addition  to 
the  maximum  salary  limits  reached  by  automatic  increases. 


Principals  of  Schools 

The  present  graded  salaries,  varying  with  the  size  of  the 
school  from  $1,050  to  $2,150,  give  splendid  opportunity  for 
an  adjustment  of  the  salaries  of  elementary  school  princi- 
pals according  to  their  worth.  Principals  who  cannot  do 
good  work,  or  who  will  not  grow,  should  be  dropped  or 
transferred  to  smaller  schools,  while  principals  who  grow 
and  are  capable  should  be  transferred  to  the  largest  schools 
and  to  the  best  positions.  Positions  ought  not  to  be  re- 
garded as  fixed,  and  a  condition  of  healthy  rivalry  should  be 
developed  among  the  principals.  When  intermediate  schools 
are  established,  promotion  to  these,  at  salaries  up  to  $2,500, 
should  be  open  to  the  best  of  the  elementary  school  princi- 
pals. If  any  principal  will  take  a  leave  of  absence  for  a 
year,  and  spend  it  in  study  in  a  school  of  education  in  any 
of  our  better  American  universities,  an  additional  $100  a 
year,  above  the  present  maximum,  should  be  added  to  his  or 
her  salary. 


86  The  Portland  Survey 


ADVANTAGES   OF   SUCH    A    MERIT   PLAN 

The  above  outline  is  suggestive  of  a  plan  which  could  be 
applied  to  the  payment  of  teachers  and  principals  in  Port- 
land, with  great  educational  advantage.  A  still  better  plan 
might  be  devised.  Unlike  most  merit  plans,  to  which  teach- 
ers usually  object,  this  suggested  outline  provides  definite  re- 
wards for  definite  things,  and  places  but  little  dependence  on 
the  personal  opinion  of  any  one  individual.  It  is  to  this  last 
that  teachers  generally  object.  Where  judgment  is  to  be  em- 
ployed here,  it  is  the  judgment  of  the  principal  and  of  the 
Superintendent.  Such  a  plan  contains  little  or  nothing  to 
which  teachers  or  principals  can  legitimately  object,  unless 
they  object  to  being  expected  to  study  and  to  keep  thinking 
and  growing.  Even  such  objectors  could  remain,  if  content 
with  the  lower  salaries. 

With  the  salary  limits  as  proposed,  the  Board  of  School 
Directors  would  spend  a  little  more  for  salaries,  but  chiefly 
because  salaries  ought  to  be  raised  anyway.  In  the  elemen- 
tary school,  while  offering  a  larger  maximum  for  the  best 
teachers,  it  would  cost  practically  no  more  than  the  present 
schedule,  after  it  was  once  in  operation,  because  not  all 
would  advance  so  high  as  now.  In  the  intermediate  school 
grades  it  would  add  a  little  to  costs,  but  chiefly  because  a 
much  higher  grade  of  teaching  service  would  be  provided. 
In  the  high  schools,  while  advancing  costs  somewhat,  due 
to  the  higher  level  of  salaries,  and  materially  advancing  the 
maximum  for  the  best,  it  would  not  increase  costs  so  much 
as  might  at  first  be  thought  because  of  the  lower  beginning 
salary  which  would  eventually  be  paid  to  many  of  the 
newer  teachers.  By  reference  to  the  salaries  paid  in  other 
Western  cities,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  salaries  proposed  are 
still  really  low.  The  same  will  be  true  if  the  salaries  pro- 
posed are  compared  with  those  paid  other  city  employees 
doing  a  similar  high  grade  of  work. 

The  merit  of  the  suggested  plan  lies  in  that  it  would  pro- 
vide a  much  better  distribution  of  rewards ;  would  offer  more 


The  Salaries  of  Teachers  87 

encouragement  for  study  and  personal  advancement ;  would 
provide  more  opportunities  for  the  efficient  to  rise;  would 
tend  better  to  retain  the  best  teachers  in  the  service;  and 
would  give  the  school  directors  better  returns  in  efficiency 
for  the  money  spent  than  does  the  present  salary  schedule. 
If  some  such  plan  for  salary  payments  were  inaugurated  and 
carried  out,  it  would  be  of  great  service  in  offering  incen- 
tives to  the  ambitious  and  capable  to  enter  the  employ  of  the 
district,  and  to  remain  and  advance  in  the  ranks. 


PART  II 

Instructional  Needs 


CHAPTER   VI 

THE    SOCIAL   AND    ECONOMIC    POSITION 
OF    PORTLAND 

TT  has  seemed  best  to  begin  this  study  of  the  instructional 
A  needs  of  the  Portland  school  district  by  first  placing  the 
city,  among  other  cities  of  its  class  in  the  United  States,  with 
reference  to  its  size,  its  rate  of  growth,  the  character  of  its 
population,  the  character  of  its  public  interests,  its  compara- 
tive wealth,  and  its  costs  for  annual  maintenance ;  then,  from 
such  an  analysis,  the  instructional  needs  of  the  district  may 
be  deduced.  This  can  be  done  best  by  presenting  a  series  of 
tables,  a  glance  at  which  will  reveal  the  social  and  economic 
position  of  the  city,  and  from  which  the  present  and  future 
educational  needs  and  possibilities  can  be  deduced. 

SOURCES   OF   INFORMATION 

The  comparison  of  Portland  with  other  cities  is  made 
possible  by  the  publication  of  the  results  of  the  Thirteenth 
U.  S.  Census,  for  1910,  and  the  separate  publication  of  the 
Census  Bureau's  very  comprehensive  Financial  Statistics  of 
Cities  for  1910.  In  this  latter  the  income,  expenditures, 
and  wealth  of  all  cities  of  30,000  or  more  inhabitants  are 
compared  in  great  detail.  The  information  is,  of  course,  not 
of  the  current  year,  and  some  minor  changes  have  no  doubt 
since  occurred  in  all  of  the  cities.  It  is,  however,  the  most 
recent  and  the  most  accurate  comparative  information  now 
available,  and  it  is  probable  that  similar  information  for  the 
present  year  would  not  materially  change  the  relative  rank 
and  position  of  the  different  cities. 

91 


92  The  Portland  Survey 


CITIES   SELECTED   FOR   COMPARISON 

Portland  had,  in  1910,  a  population  of  207,214,  and  there 
were  then  thirty-seven  cities  in  the  United  States,  including 
Portland,  which  had  a  population  between  100,000  and  350,- 
ooo  people.  These  may  be  considered  as  more  or  less  in  the 
same  class  with  Portland  in  the  matter  of  size,  wealth,  costs 
for  maintenance,  and  provision  for  education.  The  educa- 
tional problems  which  face  cities  within  these  population 
limits  are  somewhat  the  same.  The  high  position  of  Port- 
land, among  the  cities  of  the  United  States  within  the  above 
limits,  will  be  shown  by  the  tables  which  follow. 

The  thirty-seven  cities,  with  their  population  in  1910  and 
the  rate  of  increase  in  population  from  1900  to  1910,  are 
given  in  Table  IV. 

SIZE   OF   PORTLAND 

The  city  is  one  of  large  dimensions  and  large  future  possi- 
bilities, and  it  has  had  a  very  remarkable  growth.  The  city 
had,  at  the  beginning  of  1913,  a  land  and  water  area  of 
nearly  fifty-four  square  miles,  which  is  large  among  cities. 
This  means  as  yet  but  little  crowding,  as  the  average  is 
fewer  than  eight  persons  to  the  acre  of  land.  Of  the  thirty- 
seven  cities  used  for  comparison  throughout  this  report, 
twenty  have  an  area  of  less  than  twenty-five  square  miles, 
thirty-two  have  an  area  of  less  than  sixty  square  miles,  and 
but  three  exceed  seventy-five  square  miles  in  size.  The  Wil- 
lamette River  divides  the  city  into  two  unequal  divisions  — 
the  West  Side,  of  about  eleven  square  miles,  and  the  East 
Side,  of  about  forty  square  miles.1  The  water  area  covers 
a  little  more  than  two  square  miles.  The  city  is  almost 
certain  to  annex  more  territory,  particularly  to  the  South- 
west, Northwest,  and  East,  and  to  include  a  much  larger 
area  as  the  population  increases.  An  area  of  one  hundred 
and  fifty  square  miles  and  a  population  of  two  millions  of 

1  See  Figure  i,  page  5. 


Social  and  Economic  Position 


93 


TABLE  IV 
SIZE  AND  RATE  OF  GROWTH  OF  SELECTED  CITIES 


City 

Population 
in  1910 

Percentage 
of  Increase, 
1900-1910 

i.    Albany,  N.  Y  

ioo,2?3 

6.5 

2.    Bridgeport,  Conn  

102,054 

47.7 

3.     Spokane,  Wash  

104,402 

183.3 

4.     Cambridge,  Mass  

104,830 

I4.I 

5.    Lowell,  Mass  .    .       ... 

106,204 

II.O 

6.    Nashville,  Tenn.  .    .        .    . 

110,368 

36.? 

7.     Grand  Rapids,  Mich  

112,  ?7I 

28.6 

8.     Dayton,  Ohio    

n6,?77 

36.6 

9.    Fall  River,  Mass  

110,20"; 

13.8 

10.    Omaha,  Neb.    .    . 

1  24,096 

2I.O 

ii.    Paterson,  N.  J.    .    . 

125,600 

10.4. 

12.    Richmond,  Va  

127,628 

«CO.I 

13.     Scran  ton,  Penn.    .        .                  .    . 

120,867 

27.7 

14.    Memphis,  Tenn  

131,10? 

28.1 

15.     Birmingham,  Ala.    .    .       

132,68? 

24?  .4 

16.    New  Haven,  Conn  

133,60? 

23.7 

17.     Syracuse,  N.  Y  

137,240 

26.6 

18.    Worcester,  Mass  

14?  086 

23.3 

19.    Oakland,  Cal  

ISO  174 

124.3 

20.    Atlanta,  Ga  

I?4.83Q 

72.3 

21.    Toledo,  Ohio     

168,407 

27.8 

22.     Columbus,  Ohio    

181,511 

44.6 

23.    PORTLAND,  ORE  

207,214 

129.2 

24.    Denver,  Colo  

213,381 

?Q.4 

25.     St.  Paul,  Minn  

214,744 

31.7 

26.    Rochester,  N.  Y  

218  149 

1A.  2 

27.     Louisville,  Ky  

223  028 

O  A. 

28.    Providence,  R.  I  

224  326 

27  8 

29.    Indianapolis,  Ind  

233  6  CO 

38  I 

30.     Seattle,  Wash  

237  IO4 

IQ4  O 

31.    Kansas  City,  Mo  

248  38l 

?I  7 

32.    Jersey  City,  N.  J  

267,770 

2O  7 

33.    Minneapolis,  Minn  

3OI  408 

48  7 

34.    Los  Angeles,  Cal  

2TQ   To8 

211   C 

35.    Washington,  D.  C  

33LO6O 

18.8 

36.    New  Orleans,  La  

33O  O7? 

18  i 

37.    Newark,  N.  J  

347  460 

41  2 

94  The  Portland  Survey 

people  is  perhaps  not  too  much  to  expect  within  the  next 
half  century. 

POPULATION 

The  city  has  had  a  remarkable  growth  in  population,  as 
the  following  figures  will  show : 

Increase  in  Percentage  of 

Census  of  Population  Decade  Increase 

1860  2,847                               

1870  8,293  S,4i9  188.6 

1880  17,557  9,284  111.9 

1890  46,285  17,557  163.9 

1900  90,426  44,041  94-9 

1910  207,214  116,786  129.2 

Of  the  225  cities  of  the  United  States  having  a  popula- 
tion of  25,000  or  over  in  1910,  but  fourteen  had  grown 
faster  than  had  Portland  during  the  ten  years  preceding ;  and 
Portland  was  one  of  the  six  cities  in  the  United  States,  hav- 
ing 100,000  or  more  inhabitants,  which  doubled  its  popula- 
tion during  the  preceding  decade.  Of  these  six  cities  it  is 
significant  that  five  were  Pacific  Coast  cities.  They  were : 

City  Rate  of  Growth 

1900-1910 

1.  Oakland,  Cal 124.3  percent. 

2.  PORTLAND,  ORE 129.2 

3.  Spokane,  Wash ^3-3 

4.  Seattle,  Wash 104.0 

5.  Los  Angeles,  Cal 211.5 

6.  Birmingham,  Ala 245.4 

It  is  confidently  claimed  that  Portland  has  at  the  present 
time  a  population  of  250,000,  and  the  peculiar  location  and 
the  economic  importance  of  the  city  are  such  that  it  can  rea- 
sonably look  forward  to  having  a  population  of  1,000,000 
people  within  the  next  twenty-five  to  thirty  years,  and  prob- 
ably twice  that  number  within  the  next  half  century.  A 
city  with  such  a  "  manifest  destiny  "  ahead  needs  to  plan 
wisely  and  in  the  large  for  its  future. 


Social  and  Economic  Position  95 


CHARACTER   OF   THE   POPULATION 

From  an  educational  point  of  view  the  population  of 
Portland  is  exceptionally  good,  and  much  better  than  it 
can  be  expected  to  continue  to  be  after  the  city  has  become 
older  and  larger.  The  present  population,  based  on  the  cen- 
sus figures  for  1910,  is  characterized  by  a  high  percentage  of 
the  native  born,  a  foreign-born  population  drawn  largely 
from  the  stronger  and  more  intelligent  national  stocks,  an 
almost  entire  absence  of  negroes,  a  marked  excess  in  adults 
and  males,  a  smaller  number  of  married  couples,  and  a  very 
small  percentage  of  children  of  school  age.  This  condition 
is  well  shown  by  the  tables  and  diagrams  which  follow. 

Table  V  shows  the  composition  of  the  population  in  the 
thirty-seven  cities  chosen  for  purposes  of  comparison. 

The  high  percentage  of  the  native  born  and  the  small  per- 
centage of  colored  people  are  noticeable  features  of  Port- 
land's population.  But  six  Northern  or  Western  cities  have 
a  higher  percentage  of  native  born. 

THE   FOREIGN-BORN   ELEMENT 

The  character  of  Portland's  population  is  still  better 
shown  by  the  figure  on  page  97,  which  gives  the  percen- 
tages for  each  class  and  the  distribution  by  nationalities 
of  the  foreign-born  element.  The  large  Teutonic  element 
among  the  foreign  born  is  a  noticeable  feature,  and  it  is 
even  larger  among  the  native  born  of  foreign  parentage. 
This  may  be  expected  to  change,  after  the  opening  of  the 
Panama  Canal,  and  with  the  coming  to  the  city  of  large 
numbers  of  immigrants  from  the  South  and  East  of  Europe. 

That  much  of  this  foreign  element,  small  as  it  is,  is  with- 
out children  of  school  age,  is  further  shown  by  an  analysis 
of  the  nationality  statistics  for  the  children  enrolled  in  the 
schools  of  the  district.  This  analysis  shows  a  remarkably 
small  foreign-born  element  in  the  schools.  The  enrollment 
for  1912-13  showed  the  percentages  given  at  foot  of  page  97. 


The  Portland  Survey 


TABLE  V 
COMPOSITION  or  THE  POPULATION:  37  SELECTED  CITIES 


City 

Per  Cent  of  the  Whole  Who  are 

Native 
Born  of 

Native 
Parents 

Native  Born 
with  One  or 
Both  Parents 
Foreign  Born 

Foreign 
Born 

Negroes 

i.    Indianapolis,  Ind.  .    .    . 
2.    Columbus,  Ohio     .    .    . 
3     Dayton,  Ohio  

64-S 
64.4 
62.9 
61.9 
594 
57-7 
54-2 
53-2 
52.3 
S°-7 
5°-4 
50.3 
50.1 
50.0 
45-8 
44.6 
44.6 
44.6 

43-5 
42.6 
42.6 
36.8 
36.2 
34-2 
3i-9 
29.8 
28.7 
28.4 
28.2 
28.0 

27-3 
26.7 
26.6 
24.4 

22.6 
19-5 
13-3 

17.7 
19.6 
21.9 
18.4 
4-2 

6-S 
6.0 
26.1 
26.1 
23-4 
13-6 
24.6 
28.7 
6-3 
9-3 
35-2 
25-8 
36-4 
21.9 
34-2 
3i-9 
33-3 
38.0 

38.4 
38.7 
42.7 

43-5 
37-5 
37-o 
40.7 
38-1 
36.7 
36-6 
38.0 
40.0 
39-5 
43-7 

8.5 

9.0 
11.9 

IO.2 
2.8 
2-7 

19.0 
20.3 
20.3 
7.8 

7-4 
21.1 
18.2 

4-3 
4.9 
19.0 
25.6 
18.1 

8.2 

22.4 

21.8 

24.5 

25.2 
27.0 

28.5 

27.0 

26.3 

33-2 
32.0 
29.0 
31-8 
34-o 
35-5 
33-o 
36.1 
40.9 
42.6 

9-3 

'  7-o 

4-2 

9-5 
33-5 
33-i 
36.6 
2.4 
0.7 
18.1 
28.5 
0.5  l 
2.4 

39-3 
40.0 
i.i 

I.O 
I.O 

26.3 
0.8 
3-6 

2.0 

0.6 

0.4 
0.9 

0.4 
i-S 
0.9 
2.7 

2.2 
2.7 
2-4 
1-3 

4-5 

1.2 
O.I 
0-3 

4.    Kansas  City,  Mo.  .    .    . 
5     Atlanta  Ga  

6.    Nashville,  Tenn.     .    .    . 
7.    Richmond,  Va  
8.    Los  Angeles,  Cal.    .    .    . 
9.    Spokane,  Wash  
10     Louisville,  Ky  

ii.    Washington,  D.  C.     .    . 
12.    PORTLAND,  ORE.     . 
13.    Denver,  Colo  
14.    Birmingham,  Ala.  .    .    . 
15.    Memphis,  Tenn.     .    .    . 
16.    Toledo,  Ohio  

17     Seattle  Wash.     .    . 

18.    Albany,  N.  Y  
19.    New  Orleans,  La.   .    .    . 
20.    Syracuse,  N.  Y  
21      Omaha,  Neb  

22.    Oakland,  Cal  
23.    Grand  Rapids,  Mich.     . 
24.    Rochester,  N.  Y.    .    .    . 

25.    Minneapolis,  Minn.    .    . 
26.    Scranton,  Pa  

27.    St.  Paul,  Minn  

28.    Worcester,  Mass.    .    .    . 
29.    New  Haven,  Conn.    .    . 
30.    Jersey  City,  N.  J.  .    .    . 
31.    Newark,  N.  J  
32.    Providence,  R.  I.    . 

33.    Bridgeport,  Conn.  .    .    . 
34.    Cambridge,  Mass.  .    .    . 
35.    Paterson,  N.  J  
36.    Lowell,  Mass.         .   .   . 
37.    Fall  River,  Mass  .  .   .   . 

1  Plus  3.5  per  cent,  of  Indians,  Chinese,  and  Japanese  —  mostly  Chinese. 


Social  and  Economic  Position 


97 


NATIVE 
BORN, BUT 
ONE,  OR  BOTH, 
PARENTS 
FOREIGN  BORN 


NATIVE    BORN 

OF 

NATIVE 
PARENTS 


FIG.  4.    THE  ELEMENTS  OF  PORTLAND'S  POPULATION 

Born  in  Portland      28.7  per  cent. 

Born  elsewhere  in  Oregon 15.0   " 

Born  in  other  American  states      48.1    "      " 


Total  native  born 91.8  per  cent. 

Born  in  British  North  America 1.5    "" 

Born  in  northwestern  Europe 2.3  per  cent. 

Born  in  Russia 2.3    " 

Born  in  Italy 0.6   "       " 

Born  in  all  other  countries 1.5    "       " 

Total  foreign  born 6.7  per  cent. 

ico.o  per  cent. 


The  Portland  Survey 


THE   PREPONDERANCE   OF   MALES 

The  preponderance  of  males  and  of  unmarried  people  is 
also  a  marked  characteristic  of  the  population  of  Portland. 
This  is  shown  by  the  comparisons  made  in  Tables  VI  and 
VII. 

TABLE  VI 
PERCENTAGE  or  MALES  IN  THE  TOTAL  POPULATION 


City 

Per  Cent,  of  the  Total  Population 
Who  are 

Males 

Males  over  21  Years  Old 

i     Seattle,  Wash  

57-7 
57.4 

55-1 
52.3 
52.2 

S2.i 
52.0 

Si-7 
Si-5 
5i-3 
50.9 
50.8 
50.6 
So-4 
S°-3 
S°-3 
So-3 
50.2 
50.1 
50.0 
49.9 
49.9 
49.8 

49-7 
49.1 
49.1 
48.5 
48.S 

42-9 
42.9 
38-6 
34-8 
34-9 
33-6 
35-9 
35-2 
32.3 
30.2 
36.0 

3°-7 
32.8 

33-S 
33-7 
3i-3 
31-2 
32.6 
33-8 
28.5 

3°-3 
27.9 
29.4 

3i-9 
32.8 
30-8 
30.5 
30.2 

2     PORTLAND,  ORE  

3     Spokane,  Wash  

4     Omaha,  Neb  

5.    Minneapolis,  Minn  
6     St  Paul,  Minn  

7     Oakland,  Cal  

8.    Kansas  City,  Mo  

9     Bridgeport,  Conn  

10     Jersey  City,  N.  J  

ji     Los  Angeles,  Cal  

12     Birmingham,  Ala  

13     Dayton,  Ohio    

14.    Columbus,  Ohio   

15.    Denver,  Colo  

16.    Toledo,  Ohio     

17.    Worcester,  Mass  

18.    Syracuse,  N.  Y  

19.    Memphis,  Tenn  

20.    Scranton,  Pa  

21.    New  Haven,  Conn  

22.    Newark,  N.  J  
23.    Paterson,  N.  J  
24.    Rochester,  N.  Y  

25.    Indianapolis,  Ind  

26.    Providence,  R.  I.     ... 

27.    Grand  Rapids,  Mich  
28.    Louisville,  Ky  

Social  and  Economic  Position 


99 


TABLE  VI  —  Continued 
PERCENTAGE  OF  MALES  IN  THE  TOTAL  POPULATION 


City 

Per  Cent,  of  the  Total  Population 
Who  are 

Males 

Males  over  21  Years  Old 

29.    Lowell,  Mass  

48.S 
48.3 
48.2 
48.1 
48.1 
47-9 
47-7 
47-7 
47-3 
50.8 

29.4 
26.5 
28.6 
28.7 

3i-9 

28.9 

3i-3 
29.2 
27.9 
3i-3 

30.     Fall  River,  Mass  

31.    New  Orleans,  La  

32.    Atlanta,  Ga  

n.    Albany.  N.  Y.  . 

34.    Cambridge,  Mass  

35.    Washington,  D.  C  

36.    Richmond,  Va  

37.    Nashville,  Tenn  

38.    All  cities  in  the  U.  S.  .  «.    .    . 

The  unusually  high  percentage  of  males  in  the  voting 
population  in  Portland  is  of  significance. 


TABLE  VII 
PERCENTAGE  OF  MALES  FIFTEEN  YEARS  OLD  OR  OVER  WHO  ARE  MARRIED 


1.  Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 

2.  Dayton,  Ohio     .    .   , 

3.  Indianapolis,  Ind.  . 

4.  Toledo,  Ohio  .    .    . 

5.  Atlanta,  Ga 

6.  Newark,  N.  J.    .    .    . 

7.  Fall  River,  Mass.  . 

8.  Bimingham,  Ala.    . 

9.  Nashville,  Tenn.    .    , 

10.  Paterson,  N.  J. 

11.  Syracuse,  N.  Y.     .   , 

12.  Columbus,  Ohio     . 

13.  New  Haven,  Conn. 

14.  Denver,  Colo.     .    . 

15.  Bridgeport,  Conn. 


59-7 
59- 2 
58.8 
58.5 
S7-4 
57-4 
S6.7 
56.6 
56.1 
56.0 
55-9 
55-4 
55-4 
SS-i 
55-0 


ioo  The  Portland  Survey 

16.  Los  Angeles,  Cal 55.0 

17.  Kansas  City,  Mo 54.7 

18.  Scranton,  Pa 54.5 

19.  Rochester,  N.  Y 54.5 

20.  Providence,  R.  I.  v 53.9 

21.  Washington,  D.  C 53.8 

22.  Cambridge,  Mass 53.5 

23.  Oakland,  Cal 53.4 

24.  Jersey  City,  N.  J 53.2 

25.  Worcester,  Mass 53.0 

26.  Louisville,  Ky 52.6 

27.  Lowell,  Mass 52.4 

28.  Richmond,  Va.- 52.1 

29.  Memphis,  Tenn 51.4 

30.  Albany,  N.  Y 51.7 

31.  New  Orleans,  La 51.5 

32.  Spokane,  Wash 50.6 

33.  Omaha,  Neb 49.5 

34.  Minneapolis,  Minn 47.9 

35.  St.  Paul,  Minn 45.7 

36.  PORTLAND,  ORE 42.6 

37.  Seattle,  Wash 42.5 

38.  United  States  as  a  whole     55.8 


AGE  DISTRIBUTION   OF   THE   POPULATION 

The  two  tables  preceding  reveal  a  city  made  up  of  much 
more  than  the  usual  number  of  men  without  families.  In 
the  figure  which  follows,  the  age  distribution  of  Portland's 
population  is  compared  with  the  age  distribution  for  the 
United  States  as  a  whole,  and  this  throws  further  light 
on  the  composition  of  Portland's  population. 

Figure  5  reveals  the  great  excess  of  population  of  the 
aggressive  adult  years  between  25  and  45,  and  also  the 
small  percentage  of  children  of  school  age  in  Portland.  In 
the  population  between  25  and  45  the  preceding  table  shows 
that  there  must  be  a  marked  preponderance  of  men,  many 
of  whom  have  no  families.  Such  a  condition  is  characteris- 
tic of  a  new  and  a  rapidly  growing  community,  and  will  in- 
evitably change  as  the  city  grows  older  and  its  population 
becomes  more  settled. 


Social  and  Economic  Position  101 


UNITED  STATES        PORTLAND 

UNDER   5 
9.9%    IHUfaH    6.8% 

17.4% 


41.1% 
45  TO  64 
15.2%     |  [••••i     16.7% 

65  AND  OVER 
4.0%  -1^1     3.2% 

FIG.  5.    AGE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  POPULATION 


SMALL   NUMBER   OF   SCHOOL    CHILDREN 

The  small  number  of  children  of  school  age  in  Portland, 
compared  with  the  other  cities  studied,  is  another  of  the 
noteworthy  characteristics  of  the  city's  population.  This 
is  well  shown  by  Table  VIII. 

This  low  percentage  of  children  of  the  elementary  school 
age  in  the  total  population  has  made  the  schools  of  Portland 
very  easy  to  maintain.  If  the  percentage  for  Portland  were 
as  high  as  the  average  for  all  cities  in  the  United  States 
( 13.2  per  cent),  it  would  mean  an  increase  of  6,000  elemen- 
tary school  children  and  consequently  about  150  additional 
teachers  and  classrooms  (10  to  12  buildings)  to  provide  for 
the  present  population  only.  If  Portland  had  such  per- 
centages of  school  children  as  are  found  in  Fall  River,  Jer- 
sey City,  or  Newark,  cities  where  the  foreign-born  popula- 
tion is  large,  from  450  to  500  additional  teachers  and  class- 
rooms (25  to  30  buildings)  would  be  required  to  meet  the 
needs  of  a  city  of  the  present  size.  The  very  small  number 


102 


The  Portland  Survey 


TABLE  VIII 
PERCENTAGE  OF  CHILDREN  IN  THE  POPULATION 


City 

Percentage 
6  to  14  Yrs.  of  Age 

Percentage 
Under  15  Yrs.  of  Age 

i.    Fall  River,  Mass  

18.2 

12  1 

2.    Scranton,  Pa  

18.1 

12  O 

STersev  Citv.  N.  T. 

17.  e 

2Q  6 

4.    Newark,  N.  J  

16.6 

29.6 

5.    New  Orleans,  La  

I7.O 

28.A 

6.    Birmingham,  Ala  

16.2 

2O.O 

7.    Paterson,  N.  J  

16.1 

20.1 

8.    New  Haven,  Conn  

16.1 

28.d 

9.    Nashville,  Term  

16.0 

27.O 

10.    Cambridge,  Mass  

ie.7 

27.8 

ii.    Atlanta,  Ga  

iq.6 

27.  C. 

12.    Toledo,  Ohio     

1^-4 

26.6 

13.    Richmond,  Va  

JC.  7 

26.1 

14.    Worcester,  Mass  

1^.*. 

27.O 

15.    Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 

1C.  2 

27  O 

16.    Lowell,  Mass  

1C.  T 

26.8 

17.    Bridgeport,  Conn.    .   .   . 

i«;.o 

27.2 

18.    Louisville,  Ky  

14.6 

2"?.  I 

19.    Providence,  R.  I.     ... 

14..  3 

26.2 

20.    St.  Paul,  Minn  

14,.  I 

24.O 

21.    Syracuse,  N.  Y  

I4.O 

24.1 

22.    Rochester,  N.  Y  

I3.Q 

24..  2 

23.    Denver,  Colo  

12.7 

21.  1 

24.    Indianapolis,  Ind  

12.7 

21.1 

25.    Dayton,  Ohio    

J2.7 

24.<; 

26.    Omaha,  Neb  

13.5 

21.6 

27.    Washington,  D.  C  

t-US 

21.2 

28.    Minneapolis,  Minn  
29.    Memphis,  Tenn  

13-3 

M..1 

23-4 
2^.1 

30.    Albany,  N.  Y  

13.3 

22.  <; 

31.    Columbus,  Ohio    

13.2 

22.7 

32.    Spokane,  Wash  

I^.o 

21.2 

33.    Oakland,  Cal  

12.6 

22.5 

34.    Kansas  City,  Mo  

12.3 

21.2 

35.    Los  Angeles,  Cal  

n.6 

2O.  I 

36.    Seattle,  Wash  

n.  i 

IO.7 

37.    PORTLAND,  ORE.  .    . 

10.7 

18.8 

38.    All  cities  in  United  States  .    . 

13-2 

27-3 

Social  and  Economic  Position 


103 


of  children  in  the  city  has  enabled  Portland,  and  for  some 
time  to  come  should  enable  it,  to  continue  to  provide  edu- 
cational advantages  for  its  children  much  better  than  the 
average  city  can  provide. 


BUSINESS   INTERESTS 

Portland  is  essentially  a  residential  and  a  commercial  city. 
Though  ranking  twenty-eighth  in  size  in  1910,  it  stood  fifty- 
fifth  in  the  value  of  its  manufactured  products.  It  ranks 
with  other  Western  residential  and  commercial  cities  in  the 
matter  of  the  percentage  of  its  people  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facturing industries,  and  not  with  the  manufacturing  cities 
of  the  East,  as  is  shown  by  the  following  table : 

TABLE  IX 
PERCENTAGE  OF  THE  TOTAL  POPULATION  ENGAGED  IN  MANUFACTURE 


City 

Per  Cent. 

City 

Per  Cent. 

Spokane,  Wash  

3.8 

Rochester,  N.  Y.     ... 

18.0 

Seattle,  Wash  

4.2 

Dayton,  Ohio  

i8.<; 

Oakland,  Cal  

4.6 

Albany,  N.  Y  

18.6 

Los  Angeles,  Cal  

5.4 

Providence,  R.  I.     ... 

20.  7 

Denver,  Colo  

5.6 

Lowell,  Mass  

30.6 

PORTLAND,  ORE.  .   .    . 

5.9 

Fall  River,  Mass.     .    .    . 

31-1 

The  lumber  industry  is  the  only  manufacturing  industry 
in  Portland  which  requires  any  large  number  of  persons. 
This  employed,  in  1910,  26.3  per  cent,  of  those  engaged  in 
the  manufacturing  industries  of  the  city.  The  value  of  its 
output  was  22  per  cent,  of  all  of  Portland's  manufactures 
and  33.5  per  cent,  of  the  lumber  manufactures  for  the  whole 
state.  The  next  largest  industry  was  printing  and  publish- 
ing, which  employed  11.2  per  cent,  of  those  engaged  in 
manufacturing.  Then,  in  order,  foundry  and  machine  shops 
(6.3  per  cent.)  ;  bakeries  (4.5  per  cent.)  ;  clothing  industries 


iO4  The  Portland  Survey 

(3.8  per  cent.)  ;  furniture  manufactures  (3.6  per  cent.) ; 
copper,  tin,  and  sheet  iron  products  (3  per  cent.)  ;  leather 
goods  (2.6  per  cent.);  and  confectionery  (2.4  per  cent.). 
The  remainder  of  Portland's  workers  (36.3  per  cent.)  were 
scattered  among  a  large  number  of  small  industries.  In  all 
lines  but  14,891  persons  were  employed.  These  figures 
reveal  that  Portland  has  as  yet  no  large  manufacturing 
industries. 

It  is  buying,  selling,  and  transshipping  which  forms  the 
great  business  interest  of  Portland.  The  jobbing  trade  is 
large,  important,  and  rapidly  increasing.  Over  an  area  cal- 
culated at  136,768  square  miles  in  Oregon,  Washington, 
and  Idaho,  an  area  three  times  as  large  as  the  state  of  New 
York,  it  is  estimated  that  Portland  merchants  sell  80  per 
cent,  of  all  the  goods  bought.  Over  another  area  calculated 
at  103,513  square  miles  in  six  Western  states,  an  area  twice 
as  large  as  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey  combined,  and 
which  is  ranked  as  competitive  territory,  it  is  estimated  that 
Portland  merchants  sell  from  40  to  80  per  cent,  of  the 
goods  sold.  This  means  that  an  area  four  times  as  large 
as  the  six  New  England  states  combined,  and  larger  than  the 
German  Empire,  an  area  which  is  rapidly  increasing  in  pop- 
ulation, is  contributory  to  Portland  in  its  buying  and  selling. 
This  is  reflected  in  the  bank  clearings  of  Portland,  which 
have  increased  from  $50,000,000  in  1900  and  $300,000,000 
in  1906,  to  $600,000,000  in  1912. 

The  agricultural  industries  which  surround  Portland  are 
much  more  important  than  its  manufactures.  Not  only  is 
Portland  the  natural  transshipping  and  exchange  center  for 
a  large  area  in  three  states,  but  it  is  also  located  in  the  very 
center  of  the  agricultural  industry  of  the  state  of  Oregon. 
In  the  six  counties  immediately  surrounding  the  city,  as 
shown  by  the  following  map,  which  comprise  but  7.5  per 
cent,  of  the  total  area  of  the  state,  one  third  of  the  rural 
population  of  the  whole  state  resides,  one  third  of  the  total 
number  of  farms  is  located,  and  one  third  of  the  agricul- 
tural products  of  the  state  is  raised. 


Social  and  Economic  Position  105 

The  great  interests  of  the  city  are  home  interests,  profes- 
sional interests,  business  interests,  and  agricultural  inter- 
ests, though  manufacturing  will  doubtless  increase  some- 
what with  time.  Beautifully  located  as  the  city  is,  with 
its  hills,  river,  and  plain ;  standing  virtually  at  the  junction 
of  two  great  rivers,  each  open  to  the  navigation  of  large 
ocean-going  ships;  with  fresh-water  navigation  in  three  di- 


FIG.  6.    THE  AGRICULTURAL  CENTER  OF  OREGON 

rections  for  long  distances,  and  soon  to  open  to  the  Idaho 
line ;  and  with  agricultural  and  timber  interests  of  large  and 
increasing  proportions  in  all  directions  and  for  long  dis- 
tances, Portland  is  certain  to  continue  to  be  a  desirable 
residence  city  and  to  become  a  commercial  and  jobbing  cen- 
ter of  great  importance.  These  facts  necessarily  should 
modify  and  color  the  kind  of  education  provided  by  the  city 
for  its  children. 


106  The  Portland  Survey 


WEALTH 

The  city  is  one  of  much  wealth,  being  one  of  the  richest 
cities,  per  capita  of  population,  in  the  United  States.  Fur- 
thermore, the  taxes  are  very  low,  as  is  shown  by  Tables  X 
and  XI  (pages  107  and  108). 

COST  FOR  CITY  MAINTENANCE 

The  annual  per  capita  of  the  total  population  cost  for 
maintaining  the  city  government,  including  schools,  but  ex- 
cluding public-service  undertakings  (water,  wharves,  etc.) 
which  are  business  undertakings  and  partly  or  wholly  self- 
supporting,  is  shown  in  Table  XII  (page  109)  for  each 
of  the  thirty-seven  cities  studied.  From  this  table  the  low 
per  capita  cost  of  Portland's  government  is  seen. 

A  further  analysis  of  the  different  items  of  expense  for 
each  of  the  thirty-seven  cities  studied  shows  that  Portland 
maintains  nearly  all  branches  of  its  civic  activity  at  much 
less  cost  than  do  most  other  cities  of  its  size.  If  the  seven 
Southern  cities  were  excluded  from  consideration,  Portland 
would  stand  at  the  bottom  of  the  list  for  most  items  of  city 
expense.  This  may  be  seen  from  Table  XIII  (page  no). 

Table  XIII  shows  the  very  low  cost  of  maintenance  for 
the  city  government  of  Portland,  including  the  schools  of 
the  district.  Only  for  fire  protection  (item  3),  for  schools 
(9),  for  damages  for  personal  injuries  (12),  and  for  in- 
terest on  its  bonded  debt  (13),  does  Portland  reach  the  aver- 
age of  the  thirty-seven  cities  selected  as  being  of  its  class 
in  size  and  costs,  while  in  nearly  all  other  items  Portland  is 
much  below  the  average  of  the  thirty-seven. 

The  rank  of  Portland  in  amounts  spent,  given  in  the  last 
column,  is  a  better  index  of  its  position  than  the  expense 
per  item.  As  this  list  of  thirty-seven  cities  contains  seven 
Southern  cities,  where  all  costs  for  maintenance  are  quite 
low,  the  average  costs  for  the  thirty-seven  are  considerably 
lower  than  would  have  been  the  case  if  only  Northern  cities 


Social  and  Economic  Position 


107 


TABLE  X 

ASSESSED  AND  REAL  WEALTH  PER  CAPITA  OF  THE  POPULATION 


City 


Assessed 

Wealth 

Per  Capita 


Basis  of 

Assessment, 

Per  Cent. 


Real  Per 
Capita 
Wealth 


1.  Lowell,  Mass 

2.  Paterson,  N.  J 758.31 

3.  Fall  River,  Mass 776-45 

4.  Toledo,  Ohio 492.60 

5.  Bridgeport,  Conn 830.19 

6.  Dayton,  Ohio 537-25 

7.  Jersey  City,  N.  J 902.09 

8.  New  Orleans,  La 681.06 

9.  Nashville,  Tenn 687.69 

10.  Syracuse,  N.  Y 829.50 

11.  Scranton,  Pa 558.33 

12.  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.     .    .    .  742.01 

13.  Albany,  N.  Y 932-59 

14.  Columbus,  Ohio 

15.  New  Haven,  Conn 

16.  Newark,  N.  J 

17.  Worcester,  Mass 97*-99 

18.  Birmingham,  Ala 496.02 

19.  Rochester,  N.  Y 815.33 

20.  Cambridge,  Mass 1020.21 

21.  Louisville,  Ky 776.06 

22.  Providence,  R.  1 1155.22 

23.  Kansas  City,  Mo 602.43 

24.  St.  Paul,  Minn 622.18 

25.  Richmond,  Va 940.32 

26.  Denver,  Colo 634.86 

27.  Memphis,  Tenn 709.22 

28.  Atlanta,  Ga 778.10 

29.  Indianapolis,  Ind 794-84 

30.  Washington,  D.  C 937-41 

31.  Oakland,  Cal 713-55 

32.  Omaha,  Neb 234.95 

33.  Minneapolis,  Minn 707.16 

34.  Seattle,  Wash 865.38 

35.  PORTLAND,  ORE.     .    .   .  1115.57 

36.  Spokane,  Wash 820.09 

37.  Los  Angeles,  Cal 911.36 

38.  Average  of  all  cities  .... 


IOO 
IOO 
IOO 

60 

IOO 

60 

IOO 

75 
89 
80 
80 

IOO 

60 

IOO 
IOO 
IOO 

50 
80 

IOO 

70 

IOO 

50 

5° 

5° 
55 
60 
60 
70 
5° 


45 
57 

4i 


758.31 
776.45 
821.00 


902.09 
908.08 

920.74 
922.91 
927-51 

932.80 
949.26 

971.99 

992.04 

1019.16 

IO2O.2I 
II08.65 
1155.22 
1204.86 
1244.36 

1269.72 
1289.51 
1296.83 

I324-73 
1329.16 
1427.10 

1566.33 
1571.46 
1923.06 

1957.14 

2000.00 
2025.24 


io8 


The  Portland  Survey 


TABLE  XI 

RATE  OP  TAX,  IN  MILLS,  FOR  MAINTENANCE  OF  ALL  CITY  DEPARTMENTS, 
INCLUDING  THE  SCHOOL  DEPARTMENT 


City 

Nominal  Rate 
of  Taxation, 

-Mills 

Basis  of 
Assessment, 
Per  Cent. 

Real  Rate  of 
Taxation, 
Mills 

i.    Birmingham,  Ala  

IO  OO 

CO 

C  OO 

2.    PORTLAND,  ORE.     .   .   . 
3.    Spokane,  Wash  

11.78 

17.  CI 

57 

AT 

6.71 

7  rg 

4.    Atlanta,  Ga  

1  2.  CO 

60 

i  co 

5.    Oakland,  Cal.      .    . 

I  C  1A. 

co 

6.    Indianapolis,  Ind.  . 

1C  AQ 

60 

7.    Omaha,  Neb  

62  16 

1C 

8.    Los  Angeles,  Cal.   .    .    . 

21  f>1 

AC 

9.    Memphis,  Tenn.     .    . 

17   CO 

ce 

911 

10.    Seattle,  Wash  

22  11 

AC 

ii.    Washington,  D.  C  
12.    Richmond,  Va  

15.00 
14  OO 

70 

7C 

10.28 

13.    St.  Paul,  Minn  

2I.OQ 

CO 

10  68 

14.    Nashville,  Tenn  

14.74. 

7C 

ii  06 

15.     Kansas  City,  Mo  

22.6o 

CO 

IT    TO 

16.    Grand  Rapids,  Mich.    .   .   . 
17.    Paterson,  N.  J  

14.14 
II  11 

80 

11.31 

1  8.    Scran  ton,  Pa  

14  18 

go 

19.    Minneapolis,  Minn  
20.    Jersey  City,  N.  J  

25-95 

12  60 

45 

IOO 

11.50 

21.    Louisville,  Ky  

18  50 

7O 

12  nc 

22.    Worcester,  Mass  

14  OI 

IOO 

14  01 

23.    Dayton,  Ohio  

23.8? 

00 

IA  12 

24.    Providence,  R.  I  

14.  70 

IOO 

IA  7O 

25.    Columbus,  Ohio     

2C,.IC 

60 

1C  OO 

26.    Albany,  N.  Y  

1C  IO 

IOO 

27.    Bridgeport,  Conn  

ic.  71 

IOO 

1C  71 

28.    Fall  River,  Mass  

1C  84 

IOO 

1C  84 

29.    New  Haven,  Conn  
30.    Rochester,  N.  Y  

16.00 
20.07 

IOO 

80 

16.00 
16  06 

31.    Denver,  Colo  

11  26 

CO 

16  61 

32.    Toledo,  Ohio   

27  8* 

60 

16  7o 

33.    Newark,  N.  J  
34.    Lowell,  Mass  

16.72 
17  O2 

IOO 
IOO 

16.72 
17  02 

35.    New  Orleans,  La  

21.OO 

7C. 

17  2C 

36.    Syracuse,  N.  Y  

10.87 

80 

17  C8 

37.    Cambridge,  Mass  

18.61 

IOO 

1861 

38.    Average  of  all  cities  .... 

18.89 

Social  and  Economic  Position 

TABLE  XII 
PER  CAPITA  COST  FOR  CITY  MAINTENANCE 


Cost  Per 

City 

Year  Per 

Capita 

I. 

Birmingham,  Ala  

$7.10 

2. 

Nashville,  Tenn  

9-i4 

3- 

Scranton,  Pa  

9-34 

4- 

Richmond,  Va  

9-99 

5- 

Paterson,  N.  J  

10.52 

6. 

Columbus,  Ohio      

10.78 

7- 

Atlanta,  Ga  

10-93 

8. 

PORTLAND,  ORE  

11.11 

9- 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich  

"-3S 

10. 

Toledo,  Ohio   

11.66 

ii. 

Jersey  City,  N.  J  

n-77 

12. 

Bridgeport,  Conn  

"-79 

13- 

Dayton,  Ohio      

"-99 

14. 

Oakland,  Cal  

12.22 

15- 

Memphis,  Tenn  

12.24 

16. 

New  Orleans,  La  

12.42 

17. 

Indianapolis,  Ind  

12.48 

18. 

Fall  River,  Mass  

12.78 

19. 

Lowell,  Mass  

12.81 

20. 

Louisville,  Ky  

13.00 

21. 

St.  Paul,  Minn  

I3-03 

22. 

Albany,  N.  Y  

13.38 

23- 

Spokane,  Wash  

14.21 

24- 

New  Haven,  Conn  

14-35 

25- 

Omaha,  Neb  

I4-36 

26. 

Kansas  City,  Mo  

14-40 

27. 

Providence,  R.  I.    .    

I4.8I 

28. 

Syracuse,  N.  Y  

15.03 

2Q. 

Los  Angeles,  Cal  

I5.I3 

30. 

Seattle,  Wash  

15-35 

31- 

Cambridge,  Mass  

1541 

32. 

Minneapolis,  Minn  

15-68 

33- 

Worcester,  Mass  

B6.00 

34- 

Rochester,  N.  Y  

16.38 

35- 

Newark,  N.  J  

I9.03 

36. 

Denver,  Colo  

IQ.2I 

37- 

Washington,  D.  C  

24.70 

no 


The  Portland  Survey 


TABLE  xin 

RANK  OF  PORTLAND  IN  ITEMS  OF  CITY  EXPENDITURE 


Items 

Per  Capita  Cost  for 

Rank  of 
Portland 
in  Amount 
Spent 

Portland 

Average  of 
37  Cities 

i.  General  expenses  of  the  city  govern- 
ment     

$0.84 
1.25 
1.69 

•13 
.10 
.86 
i-2S 

.02 
4.29 

•IS 
•37 

.16 
$11.11 
2.89 
$14.00 

$1.30 

i-S4 
1.64 
.19 
.29 

1.  10 

1.70 
•74 
4-23 

.22 

•44 

.14 

$13-39 
2.54 
$15-93 

30th 
26th 

20th 
22d 

35th 
25th 
27th 
36th 
igth 
27th 
igth 

9th 
30th 
i2th 
25th 

2.  Police  department     

3.   Fire  department     

4.  Inspection  service  

5.  Health  conservation      

6.  Street  cleaning  and  sanitation     .    .    . 
7.  Care  and  lighting  of  streets  and  bridges 
8.  Charities,  hospitals,  and  corrections  . 
9.  Education   

10.  Libraries,  art  galleries,  and  museums  . 
ii.  Parks,  playgrounds    

12.  Damage  settlements  and  miscellane- 
ous expenses   

Total  per  capita  cost     

13.  Interest  paid  on  debt    

Total  per  capita  rate    

had  been  considered.  Portland's  low  cost  for  police  (2)  is 
an  indication  of  the  orderliness  of  the  city,  and  this,  to- 
gether with  the  high  per  capita  wealth  (Table  X,  page  107) 
and  the  very  low  cost  for  health  service  (5)  and  for  chari- 
ties (8),  gives  further  indication  of  the  good  character  of 
the  city's  population. 

The  amount  spent  for  education  (9),  while  slightly  above 
the  average  for  the  thirty-seven  cities,  must  not  be  taken  too 
favorably,  as  the  list  contains  a  number  of  Eastern  and 
Southern  cities  where  the  costs  for  maintenance  and  the 
wages  paid  teachers  are  both  very  low.  As  it  is,  the  city 
stands  nineteenth  from  the  top.  If  only  the  nine  cities  west 
of  the  Mississippi  River  were  considered,  cities  where  ex- 


Social  and  Economic  Position 


in 


INTEREST 
20.7* 


U,  o 


00 


-LNSPECTION-09^ 
iiTH-p.yi 


EDUCATION 
30.7* 


FIG.  7.    How  PORTLAND  SPENDS  ITS  DOLLAR 

penses  for  maintenance  and  for  salaries  are  more  nearly 
comparable,  the  average  per  capita  cost  of  schools  would 
become  $4.71  instead  of  $4.23,  or  43  cents  greater  than 
Portland's. 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE  EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS  OF  SUCH  A  CITY 
AS    PORTLAND 

GENERAL   CHARACTER   OF  THE   CITY 

WE  find,  then,  as  a  result  of  the  comparisons  made  in  the 
preceding  chapter,  that  we  have  to  consider  the  needs 
of  a  rapidly  growing  Western  city  of  the  best  class.  It  is 
also  one  destined  to  grow  rapidly  in  the  future  in  both  area 
and  population,  and  to  occupy  an  important  place  in  the 
social,  political,  commercial,  and  agricultural  life  of  the 
northwestern  part  of  the  United  States.  In  the  state  of 
Oregon  it  will,  in  all  probability,  continue  for  all  time  to  be 
not  only  the  metropolis,  but  the  commanding  influence  as 
well. 

In  population  the  city  is,  as  yet,  essentially  an  American 
city,  with  but  a  small  foreign-born  population,  and  this 
drawn  largely  from  nations  of  Teutonic  stcck.  The  num- 
ber of  Orientals  of  school  age  is  small,  and  the  number  of 
negroes  is  almost  negligible.  The  city  has  a  large  surplus  of 
men,  particularly  of  those  in  the  productive  and  creative 
years  of  early  manhood ;  a  small  number  of  married  couples, 
and  a  very  small  percentage  of  children  of  school  age. 
These  facts,  as  was  pointed  out  in  the  preceding  chapter, 
give  the  city  many  educational  advantages. 

The  city  itself  is  essentially  a  residential  and  commercial 
one.  While  there  is  some  manufacturing,  the  large  city  in- 
terests are  home  and  business  interests  —  retailing,  whole- 
saling, the  transshipment  of  freight,  and  supplying  both  the 
needs  of  and  the  outlet  for  the  rich  agricultural  and  timber 
region  surrounding  the  city  for  some  distance  in  all  direc- 

112 


Educational  Needs  113 

tions.    It  is  these  elements  which  should  color  its  educational 
system. 

The  city,  too,  is  one  of  the  wealthiest  large  cities  in  the 
United  States,  and  it  is  conducted  on  a  very  low  rate  of 
taxation  and  a  very  low  per  capita  expenditure.  In  almost 
every  item  of  city  expenditure  the  rank  of  Portland  is  low. 
While  this  is  commendable,  there  is  no  reason  why  Portland 
should  hesitate  to  increase  materially  its  expenditures  for  its 
educational  system  or  for  other  branches  of  helpful  munici- 
pal service.  In  such  a  city,  composed  of  an  excellent  class 
of  people,  growing  rapidly,  rich,  and  with  a  great  future 
before  it,  the  school  system  provided  should  be  one  of  the 
best  in  the  United  States.  It  should  also  be  one  which,  in 
addition  to  providing  the  general  fundamentals  of  knowl- 
edge and  the  ordinary  types  of  instruction,  provides  also 
in  a  broad  and  generous  way  for  its  citizens,  public  life, 
and  commercial  needs  of  tomorrow.  This  involves  the  pro- 
vision of  elementary  and  secondary  educational  opportuni- 
ties, of  course,  and  something  more. 

CHANGES  IN  OUR  CONCEPTION  OF  EDUCATION 

Schools  arose,  with  us,  as  democratic  institutions  and  to 
serve  democratic  ends,  and  quite  early  in  our  educational 
history  education  came  to  be  conceived  of  as  a  right  on  the 
part  of  the  citizen  and  as  a  political  necessity  on  the  part  of 
the  state.  The  early  conception  of  the  school  was  that  of 
a  place  where  the  fundamentals  of  knowledge  could  be  im- 
parted, and  the  pupil  trained  for  participation  in  our  politi- 
cal life.  Reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  language,  geography, 
and  the  history  of  our  country  constituted  the  substance  of 
the  course  of  instruction,  and  to  convey  the  accumulated 
knowledge  of  the  past  to  the  next  generation  was  almost  the 
only  function  of  the  school.  This  conception,  once  estab- 
lished, has  persisted  in  many  places  up  to  very  recently. 

Within  recent  years,  and  particularly  since  about  1900, 
entirely  new  conceptions  of  the  place  and  province  of  public 


ii4  The  Portland  Survey 

education  in  a  democratic  society  have  come  to  the  front, 
and  are  rapidly  being  accepted  by  our  American  people.  The 
idea  that  the  school  exists  to  transmit  to  the  next  generation 
the  accumulated  knowledge  of  the  past  has  given  way  to  the 
newer  conception  that  the  school  exists  to  prepare  the  child 
of  today  for  intelligent  participation  in  that  society  —  social, 
political,  and  economic  —  of  which  he  or  she  will  form  a 
part. 

SIGNIFICANCE  OF   THE  CHANGE 

This  change  in  conception  is  of  far-reaching  significance, 
and  involves  radical  reconstructions  in  the  work  of  public 
education.  What  is  desired  today  is  not  so  much  accumu- 
lated knowledge  —  for  such  is  not  power,  as  we  used  to 
think,  unless  it  is  capable  of  application  to  the  work  of  life  — 
but  knowledge  which  fits  the  child  for  his  place  in  that  so- 
ciety of  which  he  will  probably  form  a  part.  This  has  in- 
volved not  only  the  addition  of  entirely  new  subjects  of 
study,  but  also  of  entirely  new  classes  of  schools.  It  has 
also  shifted  the  point  of  emphasis  from  subject-matter  to 
the  child  himself.  A  rich,  fruitful  child  life  is  seen  to  be 
more  important  than  information. 

With  the  increased  participation  of  our  people  in  the 
functions  of  government,  as  shown  by  the  adoption  of  the 
initiative,  the  referendum,  the  recall,  and  the  extension  of 
the  suffrage  to  women,  the  need  of  better  education  for 
all  our  citizens  has  been  seen  to  be  necessary.  With  the 
great  increase  in  scientific  knowledge  and  the  application 
of  the  discoveries  of  science  to  all  phases  of  human  life, 
the  need  of  instruction  in  science  for  the  masses  of  our 
people  has  been  seen.  With  the  growing  importance  of 
commerce  and  industry,  careful  training  for  the  larger  com- 
mercial activities  of  a  community  has  become  important. 
With  the  recent  great  increase  in  complexity  of  our  indus- 
trial and  social  life,  the  need  of  education  that  will  better 
fit  the  worker  for  his  or  her  vocation  and  for  proper  living 
has  rapidly  become  apparent.  The  home,  too,  has  been  seen 


Educational  Needs 

to  need  direction  and  guidance,  and  the  home-keeping  arts 
have  been  introduced. 

In  proportion,  too,  as  our  political,  industrial,  commer- 
cial, and  social  life  has  become  broader  and  more  complex, 
a  longer  period  of  educational  guidance,  and  intelligent 
choice  instead  of  haphazard  drifting,  have  alike  become 
necessary  to  prepare  the  individual  for  intelligent  and  suc- 
cessful participation  therein.  Our  schools,  slowly  at  first, 
now  more  rapidly,  are  grasping  the  vast  significance  of  their 
social,  political,  and  commercial  connections,  relations,  and 
obligations,  and  are  coming  to  realize  that  their  worth  as  in- 
stitutions of  democracy  depends  not  so  much  on  the  impart- 
ing of  mere  information  as  upon  their  efficiency  as  institu- 
tions for  the  improvement  of  society. 

THESE   NEW    CONCEPTIONS   APPLIED 

Applying  these  principles  to  the  local  situation,  we  should 
expect  to  find,  in  a  city  of  the  size  and  importance  of  the  city 
of  Portland,  a  school  system  thoroughly  conscious  of  these 
modern  ends  and  aims,  and  consciously  working  to  improve 
not  only  the  educational,  but  also  the  social,  political,  com- 
mercial, and  physical  welfare  of  the  community. 

The  elementary  school  system  —  by  which  we  mean  now 
all  instruction  below  the  high  school  —  where  the  great 
masses  of  the  people  are  trained,  should  be  especially  rich 
in  its  offering,  providing  not  only  instruction  and  personal 
guidance,  but  instruction  and  personal  guidance  for  many 
different  classes  of  children,  and  meeting  the  social,  physi- 
cal, and  educational  needs  of  many  different  types  of  youth. 
A  system  of  kindergartens,  for  the  instruction  of  children 
under  six,  might  well  precede  the  elementary  school  course, 
particularly  in  the  poorer  and  more  foreign  quarters  of  the 
city.  The  elementary  school  training,  in  its  earlier  years, 
should  have  the  kindergarten  spirit  carried  over  into  it,  and 
be  rich  in  activity  and  happy  expression.  In  its  later  years 
it  should  differentiate  somewhat  to  meet  different  needs, 


n6  The  Portland  Survey 

and  certain  divisions  of  it  should  be  given  a  strong  voca- 
tional turn.  The  secondary  instruction  should  involve  the 
best  quality  of  purely  cultural,  domestic,  scientific,  techni- 
cal, commercial,  physical,  and  vocational  education,  and 
should  be  carefully  adjusted  to  individual  and  community 
needs. 

A  city  of  the  size  and  importance  of  Portland  should  also 
provide  good  extension  education  for  adults  and  for  those 
beyond  the  compulsory  school  age.  In  1910,  there  were 
in  the  city  1,187  illiterate  males  of  voting  age  and  2,145  ten 
years  of  age  and  over  who  could  not  read  and  write.  For 
these  some  instruction  should  be  provided,  suitable  to  their 
needs.  Far  more  important  than  these,  though,  are  the 
thousands  of  men  and  women  who  are  not  illiterate,  but 
who  still  have  a  need  and  a  thirst  for  information  and  in- 
struction. Summer  schools  of  different  types  should  also 
be  maintained,  and  good  and  readily  accessible  facilities 
provided  for  organized  and  directed  play. 

To  be  still  more  specific,  let  us  examine  each  of  these 
divisions  more  in  detail. 

I.     THE   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

The  elementary  school  system  of  such  a  city  should  of 
course  give  instruction  in  the  old  fundamental  subjects  of 
the  elementary  school  curriculum,  viz.,  reading,  writing, 
language,  arithmetic,  geography,  and  history.  The  first 
four  of  these  are  tools,  pure  and  simple,  and  should  be 
taught  well,  but  as  economically  of  time  and  energy  as  is 
possible,  and  should  lead  as  soon  as  possible  to  applied  work. 
Perhaps  few  tests  serve  so  well  to  distinguish  a  school  sys- 
tem possessed  of  a  modern  spirit  and  a  proper  conception 
of  its  functions  from  a  school  system  of  the  old  tradi- 
tional type,  as  does  the  way  in  which  these  tool  subjects  are 
taught  in  the  schools.  In  the  former  these  subjects  are 
frankly  regarded  as  tools,  to  be  taught  of  course,  but  always 
with  a  view  to  their  use  in  learning  or  doing  something  else ; 


Educational  Needs  117 

in  the  latter  they  are  taught  as  ends  in  themselves,  and  with  a 
minuteness  and  an  attempted  thoroughness  which  is  painful 
to  behold.  Years  of  a  child's  life  are  often  spent  in  learning 
certain  supposed  uses  of  a  tool  for  which  there  is  no  demand 
outside  the  schoolroom  itself.  This  is  particularly  true  of 
arithmetic  and  grammar.  Pupils  are  often  drilled  for  years 
on  problems  of  a  type  no  man  in  practical  life  ever  solves, 
and  grammatical  drill  is  given,  often  for  years,  which  can 
be  of  no  use  to  anyone  except  a  school  teacher. 

Tool  Subjects 

We  should  expect,  then,  in  a  city  of  the  size  and  type  of 
Portland,  to  find  a  school  system  in  which  the  fundamental 
elementary  school  tools  —  reading,  writing,  spelling,  Eng- 
lish usage,  and  the  fundamentals  of  arithmetic  —  were 
taught  well,  but  taught  always  with  a  view  to  their  use  as 
tools.  We  should  also  expect  to  find  a  corps  of  supervisors 
of  instruction  —  superintendents  and  principals  —  carefully 
protecting  the  children  and  guiding  the  teachers  away  from 
perhaps  the  most  common  mistake  of  school  teachers  —  that 
of  regarding  these  subjects  as  ends  in  themselves. 

Content  Subjects 

The  reading  should  be  especially  rich  in  material  read  and 
large  in  quantity,  with  a  view  to  giving  the  child  ideas  and 
enthusiasms  as  well  as  the  ability  to  pronounce.  In  a  city  so 
wonderfully  located  as  Portland,  a  city  where  almost  every 
geographical  feature  and  type  is  before  the  eyes  of  teacher 
and  children,  and  in  a  wonderfully  fine  form,  we  should  also 
expect  to  find  the  instruction  in  geography  rich  in  its  con- 
tent, closely  correlated  with  the  nature  study  work,  and 
among  the  best  taught  of  all  the  elementary  school  subjects. 
The  instruction  in  history  we  should  expect  to  find  closely 
correlated  with  reading  and  literature  in  the  early  grades, 
and  rich  in  story  and  biography,  but  gradually  separating  it- 


n8  The  Portland  Survey 

self  as  a  study,  so  that  by  the  fifth  or  sixth  grade  an  ele- 
mentary history  text  might  be  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils. 
Good  instruction  in  drawing  and  music  should  also  be  pro- 
vided. 

Science 

In  a  Western  city  such  as  Portland,  one  whose  whole  fu- 
ture promises  to  be  colored  by  the  inventions  and  discoveries 
of  science  and  by  agriculture,  we  should  also  expect  to  find 
a  course  of  study  rich  in  instruction  in  the  elements  of  many 
sciences.  Such  work  should  be  found  in  every  grade  of  the 
elementary  school,  from  the  first  to  the  last,  and  in  the  upper 
grades  it  ought  to  culminate  in  rather  specific  instruction  in 
agriculture  and  in  general  science.  School  gardening  should 
be  very  prominent  in  the  instruction  of  a  school  system  lo- 
cated, as  in  Portland,  in  the  very  heart  of  one  of  the  richest 
agricultural  regions  of  the  United  States.  Good  instruction 
in  domestic  science  and  homework  for  girls,  and  in  manual 
training  for  boys,  should  also  be  prominent  features  in  the 
work  of  the  upper  grades  of  a  course  of  study  for  such  a 
city. 

Individual  Differences 

The  school  system  of  such  a  city,  too,  should  recognize 
the  great  differences  which  exist  among  children,  and  par- 
ticularly the  great  differentiations  in  aptitudes  which  begin 
to  be  marked  after  about  twelve  or  thirteen  years  of  age. 
To  meet  such  needs  best,  a  series  of  intermediate  schools 
might  be  provided  with  advantage.  For  a  city  such  as  Port- 
land, with  its  large  residential  class  of  means,  its  large  busi- 
ness and  working  middle  class,  its  home-building  foreign 
population  of  good  stock,  and  its  poor  and  poorly-housed 
element,  small  now  but  certain  to  increase  rapidly,  differ- 
entiations in  instruction  for  the  upper  years  of  the  elemen- 
tary school  ought  to  be  provided.  For  some  the  opportunity 
to  take  up  a  foreign  language  and  other  mathematics  than 
arithmetic  ought  to  be  provided.  For  others  what  is  known 


Educational  Needs  119 

as  pre-vocational  training,  the  nature  of  which  is  further  ex- 
plained in  Chapters  IX  and  X,  should  be  given.  Manual 
training  and  the  home-keeping  arts  should  be  emphasized  for 
others.  Music,  drawing,  constructive  art  work,  and  dra- 
matic expression  should  also  be  included. 


In  such  a  city,  too,  one  ought  to  expect  to  find  smaller 
classes  to  the  teacher  than  in  eastern  cities  of  larger  school 
population  and  much  smaller  per  capita  wealth.  This,  in 
turn,  should  enable  the  schools  to  provide  differentiations 
based  on  capacity  and  needs,  and  an  excellent  quality  of  in- 
struction. In  such  a  city,  too,  one  should  find  ungraded 
rooms  and  special  classes  for  those  needing  such  attention. 
In  addition,  in  a  city  of  a  quarter  of  a  million  inhabitants, 
one  would  expect  to  find  special  classes  provided  for  the  seri- 
ously anaemic,  the  tubercular,  those  of  defective  speech,  the 
overaged  and  backward,  the  defective,  the  deaf,  and  per- 
haps the  blind.  It  is  a  waste  of  money  and  energy  to  try 
to  teach  such  children  in  classes  with  normal  children,  and 
it  also  is  not  fair  to  them  or  to  normal  children.  Play  activi- 
ties should  also  be  emphasized,  good  health  supervision 
should  be  provided,  and  good  instruction  in  hygienic  living 
should  be  given  in  the  schools.  An  educational  system 
which  is  conscious  of  its  social  mission  is  engaged  in  far 
more  than  mere  instruction;  its  purpose  is  so  to  use  in- 
struction as  to  do  the  most  possible  for  every  boy  and  girl 
under  its  care. 

Finally,  we  should  expect  such  a  school  system  to  cover 
this  rich  course  of  instruction  in  eight  years  of  time,  save 
as  large  a  percentage  as  possible  from  dropping  out  before 
the  completion  of  the  course,  and  get  its  pupils  into  high 
school  work  by  the  age  of  fourteen  to  fifteen. 


120  The  Portland  Survey 

2.     SECONDARY   EDUCATION 

Vocational  education  of  a  number  of  types  should  be 
available  for  those  completing  the  elementary  course  and  not 
desiring  to  enter  the  regulation  high  school  course.  Such  in- 
struction should  involve  the  home-keeping  arts  for  girls, 
some  of  the  trades  for  boys,  and  certain  lines  of  specialized 
work  in  drawing  and  of  business  work  for  both.  In  addi- 
tion, a  wide  range  of  high  school  education  should  be  avail- 
able for  all,  and  this  should  be  made  so  varied  and  so  thor- 
ough that  a  large  percentage  of  those  finishing  the  elemen- 
tary school  course  would  feel  the  necessity  of  going  on  and 
graduating  from  some  one  of  the  high  school  courses  before 
beginning  their  life  work.  To  make  this  the  case  the  high 
school  instruction  should  relate  itself  closely  to  the  needs 
of  the  city  itself. 

College  Preparatory  Subjects 

In  such  a  business  and  residential  city  as  Portland,  with 
many  beautiful  homes  and  many  attractive  cottages,  a  people 
of  good  native  stock,  and  a  people  of  much  means  and 
means  well  distributed,  there  will  naturally  be  a  large  and  a 
constant  demand  for  instruction  in  the  older  types  of  col- 
lege preparatory  subjects  —  the  languages,  history,  English, 
mathematics,  and  the  older  sciences.  These  we  should  ex- 
pect to  find  offered  in  a  number  of  the  high  schools  and 
taught  in  the  best  manner  and  by  the  best  teachers  obtain- 
able. To  meet  growing  civic  needs,  good  instruction  in 
economics  and  American  history  should  be  provided  as  well. 

Technical  Courses 

For  those  desiring  a  general  education,  but  of  a  more 
technical  type,  good  instruction  in  courses  of  a  polytechnic 
nature  —  mathematics,  the  physical  sciences,  drawing,  and 
shop  work  for  the  boys,  and  drawing,  art  work,  the  sciences, 


Educational  Needs  121 

and  the  home-keeping  arts  for  the  girls  —  should  also  be 
provided.  A  good  manual  arts  course,  including  instruction 
in  electricity,  machine-shop  work,  plumbing  and  sanitary 
engineering,  the  printing  and  bookbinding  trades,  millinery, 
dressmaking,  and  designing  of  many  kinds,  might  also  be 
provided  with  advantage.  Whether  taught  in  special  high 
schools,  or  offered  in  each  of  the  general  or  so-called  cos- 
mopolitan high  schools,  we  might  reasonably  expect  to  find 
such  instruction  provided,  in  one  form  or  the  other,  in  a  city 
of  such  a  character  as  Portland. 

Commercial  and  Agricultural  High  Schools 

Two  other  prominent  needs  of  such  a  city  as  Portland, 
located  as  it  is  and  with  its  large  future  just  ahead  of  it, 
are  the  best  quality  of  instruction  in  commerce  and  in  agri- 
culture. The  commercial  business  of  Portland,  and  not 
manufacturing,  will  probably  ever  be  its  prime  interest,  and 
agriculture  will  be  its  second  largest  interest  and  source  of 
income.  Properly  to  meet  such  present  and  future  needs, 
we  might  reasonably  expect  such  a  city  to  maintain,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  more  general  commercial  courses,  a  commer- 
cial high  school  of  the  first  rank,  where  careful  preparation 
could  be  made  to  meet  the  large  and  increasing  commercial 
needs  of  the  city.  Besides  offering  an  excellent  form  of 
education,  such  a  school  would  give  large  financial  returns 
to  the  business  interests  of  the  community.  The  trade  of 
Portland  is  certain  to  expand  rapidly  as  population  in- 
creases, and  the  merchants  of  Portland  should  have  at 
hand  the  best  training  available  for  their  business  work. 
The  same  is  equally  true  of  agricultural  instruction.  An 
agricultural  high  school  of  the  best  class,  in  which  all  the  in- 
struction was  developed  from  an  agricultural  standpoint, 
would  offer  instruction  to  young  people  of  high  educational 
value,  would  direct  many  of  them  into  useful  and  profitable 
life  careers,  and  would  be  a  paying  investment  for  the 
business  interests  of  the  city  as  well. 


122  The  Portland  Survey 


3.     PUBLIC  SCHOOL   EXTENSION 

We  have  only  recently  begun  to  extend  the  school  to  meet 
the  various  needs  of  our  people,  and,  except  for  providing 
night  schools,  which  have  been  maintained  generally  for 
many  years,  most  cities  have  as  yet  done  little  to  meet  the 
needs  of  their  people.  On  the  other  hand,  many  of  our 
wealthier  cities  have  made  very  commendable  beginnings, 
and  it  is  only  a  question  of  time  until  all  will  be  forced  to 
do  so.  A  generation  hence  public  education  will  be  a  much 
more  important  undertaking  than  it  is  today.  Such  work 
ought  to  include  evening  high  schools,  especially  of  the  vo- 
cational type;  evening  elementary  schools,  of  a  type  differ- 
ent from  the  day  schools,  for  the  instruction  of  foreigners 
in  our  language  and  form  of  political  life  and  for  instruction 
in  applied  science  and  art;  evening  lectures  and  scientific 
demonstrations,  covering  a  wide  range  of  subjects,  for 
adults ;  summer  schools  for  the  more  energetic  and  summer 
vocational  schools  of  various  types ;  and  well-directed  play- 
grounds, open  all  summer,  after  school  hours,  and  on  Sun- 
days and  holidays,  with  attendants  in  charge  not  only  to 
direct  the  play,  but  also  to  give  particular  attention  to  in- 
dividual needs  in  the  line  of  health  and  physical  develop- 
ment. 

Portland's  Special  Educational  Opportunity 

The  laws  of  the  state  of  Oregon  require  that  all  children 
in  the  state,  unless  excused  for  certain  specified  reasons, 
"  between  and  including  the  ages  of  nine  and  fifteen  years 
of  age,"  shall  attend  a  public  school  for  the  full  time  such 
public  school  is  held  in  the  district.  This  is  interpreted  to 
mean  that  all  children  must  enter  school  by  the  time  they  are 
nine,  at  latest,  and  must  remain  in  school  until  they  reach 
their  sixteenth  birthday.  The  schools  of  Portland  are  in 
session  ten  months  in  the  year,  and  children  usually  enter  at 
six  or  seven  years  of  age.  This  gives  Portland  an  unusual 


Educational  Needs  123 

opportunity  to  ensure  the  proper  education  of  all  her  future 
citizens. 

In  a  community  such  as  Portland,  composed  of  excellent 
stock,  largely  American,  and  with  but  few  foreign-born 
children  in  the  schools,  a  city  of  intelligence,  and  with  wealth 
sufficient  to  provide  for  any  educational  needs,  a  quiet,  law- 
abiding  community,  and  a  city  offering  few  opportunities 
for  children  to  work  in  mills  or  manufacturing  establish- 
ments, it  ought  to  be  possible  to  put  practically  every  child 
in  the  community  through  a  six-years'  elementary  and  a 
three-years'  intermediate  school  course,  and  not  only  to  offer 
to  such  children  good  instruction  in  the  fundamentals  of 
learning,  but  to  offer  some  pre-vocational  opportunities  and 
instruction  for  all  as  well.  Nothing  less  than  this  ought  to 
be  the  aim  and  the  ambition  of  the  school  authorities  of  the 
district,  and  the  instruction  and  the  promotional  rate  ought 
to  be  shaped  to  this  end.  We  should  expect  to  find,  then, 
every  reasonable  provision  to  facilitate  the  progress  of  the 
children  through  the  grades ;  no  large  number  of  repeaters 
or  over-age  children  in  the  grades,  and  no  marked  falling  off 
of  children  after  the  sixth  grade,  as  is  common  in  many 
other  cities. 

Such  is  an  outline  of  what  a  city  of  the  size,  wealth,  social 
composition,  political  importance,  and  commercial  future  of 
Portland  might  reasonably  be  expected  to  provide  for  its 
children  and  for  its  citizens. 

In  the  next  chapter  the  educational  offering  of  the  city, 
elementary  and  secondary,  is  stated,  from  which  one  who 
reads  can  see  to  what  extent  the  city  school  system  measures 
up  to  what  might  reasonably  be  expected  of  "ft. 

Following  this,  in  Chapters  IX,  X,  and  XI,  the  needed 
changes  and  additions  are  outlined  and  a  constructive  pro- 
gram for  the  city  is  set  forth.  While  there  are  slight  dupli- 
cations in  Chapters  IX  and  XI  as  to  recommended  improve- 
ments, it  has  seemed  best  to  retain  such,  as  the  recommenda- 
tions come  from  two  city  superintendents  of  schools  whose 
school  systems  are  noted  for  their  efficient  work. 


CHAPTER    VIII1 

THE   PRESENT   SYSTEM    OF    ELEMENTARY 
AND    SECONDARY   INSTRUCTION 

PREFATORY  NOTE:  The  part  of 'this  report  contained  in  this  and  the  follow- 
ing chapter  is  based  on  annual  reports,  courses  of  study,  rules  and  regulations 
of  the  Portland  schools,  together  with  a  personal  study  of  the  schools  in  opera- 
tion, from  April  7  to  April  24,  including  many  conferences  with  principals, 
teachers,  Superintendent,  assistant  superintendents,  and  members  of  the  Board 
of  School  Directors.  In  the  personal  study  of  the  schools  it  was  thought  prefer- 
able to  devote  all  of  the  limited  time  to  a  few  schools,  that  might  be  considered 
typical,  rather  than  to  divide  the  time  among  all  the  schools.  Carrying  out  this 
pkn,  the  following  schools  were  studied:  the  three  high  schools,  one  day  being 
devoted  to  each;  the  School  of  Trades,  one  forenoon;  the  School  for  the  Deaf, 
one  short  afternoon;  the  School  for  Defectives,  a  part  of  one  morning;  the 
Brooklyn  School,  one  forenoon;  the  Highland  School,  one  full  day;  the  Arleta 
School,  one  full  day;  the  Glencoe  School,  one  morning;  the  Holladay  School, 
one  full  day;  the  Couch  School,  one  forenoon;  the  Failing  School,  one  fore- 
noon; and  the  Shattuck  School,  one  afternoon.  The  inspection  of  the  work 
of  the  elementary  schools  was  so  planned  that  some  exercises  were  seen  in  all 
subjects;  in  the  principal  subjects  —  reading,  language,  arithmetic,  geog- 
raphy, and  history  —  exercises  were  seen  in  every  grade  of  each  subject,  and 
usually  in  more  than  one  class,  sometimes  in  several  classes  of  a  grade. 

Conferences  of  one  to  three  hours  were  held  with  the  principal  of  each  one 
of  the  schools  studied.  At  these  conferences  searching  inquiry  was  made  into 
the  purpose,  work,  difficulties,  and  shortcomings  of  the  school,  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  principal. 

Such  is  approximately  the  scope  of  the  studies  on  which  this  section  of  this 
critical  report  is  based.  This  is  made  known  at  the  outset,  so  that  one  reading 
this  section  of  the  report  may  judge  for  himself  of  the  reliability  and  justifica- 
tion of  generalizations  that  are  obviously  based  largely  or  wholly  on  personal 
investigation  of  the  schools  at  work.  The  facts  that  the  studies  of  all  the  ele- 
mentary schools,  after  the  first  one  visited,  revealed  nothing  of  fundamental 
importance  that  was  not  evident  in  the  first  school,  but  served  to  confirm  the 
chief  characteristics  of  that  first  school;  that  several  principals  volunteered 
the  assurance  that  to  know  one  Portland  grammar  school  was  to  know  them 

1  Chapters  VIII  and  DC  were  written  by  Superintendent  F.  E.  Spaulding. — 
EDITOR. 

124 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction          125 

all;  and  that  the  study  of  the  Portland  school  system  from  every  standpoint 
warrants  the  expectation  of  uniformity,  seem  to  me  to  justify  the  belief  that 
further  studies  would  show  that  all  generalizations  made  in  this  section  may 
safely  be  accepted  as  reliable.  Nevertheless,  should  anyone,  particularly  any- 
one conversant  with  all  the  Portland  schools,  contend  that  any  generalization 
here  made,  which  is  chiefly  based  on  conditions  found  in  the  schools  studied, 
is  not  true  of  the  schools  as  a  whole,  I  should  not  argue  the  point,  for  I  have 
had  no  opportunity  to  know  anything  through  personal  investigation  of  the 
work  of  three  fourths  of  the  Portland  schools. 

F.  E.  SPAULDING. 

RIGIDITY   OF   THE   SYSTEM 

r 

THE  most  fundamental  principle  observed  in  the  present 
conduct  of  the  Portland  school  system  is  the  main- 
tenance unchanged  of  a  rigidly  prescribed,  mechanical  sys- 
tem, poorly  adapted  to  the  needs  either  of  the  children  or 
of  the  community.  The  universal  practice  —  whether  ap- 
proved or  disapproved  by  those  participating  in  it  —  is  en- 
listed in  the  maintenance  of  a  rigid,  minutely  and  mechani- 
cally prescribed  system  of  instruction,  organization,  admin- 
istration, supervision,  examination,  and  inspection.  Any 
change  in  this  elaborate  mechanism  meets  with  resistance, 
positive  as  well  as  negative.  So  far  as  this  system  is  adapted 
at  any  point  to  the  actual  needs  of  the  individual  children 
and  youth  that  come  under  it,  so  far  as  it  is  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  the  community  for  adequately  trained  recruits  to 
serve  the  community,  the  adaptation  is  accidental  —  not  the 
result  of  intelligence  now  operative  at  that  point. 

School  board  and  superintendent,  as  well  as  principals, 
teachers,  and  pupils,  are  victims  of  the  system  for  which  no 
one  is  primarily  responsible.  So  far  as  we  have  been  able 
to  learn,  the  spirit  and  fundamental  outlines  of  this  rigid, 
mechanical  system  antedate  the  beginnings  of  the  services 
of  those  now  longest  connected  with  the  schools.  No  single 
individual,  no  single  group  or  class  of  individuals,  at  present 
within  or  without  the  school  system,  can  fairly  be  held  re- 
sponsible, either  primarily  or  chiefly,  for  the  system  as  it 
today  exists.  Of  course,  the  seat  of  the  authority  that 


126  The  Portland  Survey 

maintains  and  that  has  long  maintained  this  system,  is  to 
be  found  somewhere  in  the  school  board,  in  the  superin- 
tendent and  his  assistants;  but  the  school  board,  the  super- 
intendent and  his  assistants,  are  today  manifestly  the  vic- 
tims, whether  willing  or  unwilling,  of  the  system  that  they 
help  to  maintain,  just  as  truly,  if  not  as  fully,  as  is  every 
principal,  teacher,  and  pupil  in  the  schools.  And  these  offi- 
cials will  continue  to  be  the  voluntary  or  involuntary  serv- 
ants of  a  system  for  which  it  ought  to  be  possible  to  hold 
someone  primarily  and  chiefly  responsible,  so  long  as  au- 
thority is  merely  "  seated  somewhere  "  among  them ;  au- 
thority and  corresponding  responsibility  must  be  definitely 
centered,  as  has  been  pointed  out  in  Chapter  III,  as  a  pri- 
mary condition  of  the  escape  of  any  or  all  from  the  uni- 
versally oppressive  incubus  of  the  present  system. 

Did  the  solution  of  the  local  educational  problem  lie  in 
the  maintenance  of  a  rigidly  uniform,  mechanical  system 
of  instruction,  we  should  have  only  commendation  for  the 
system  that  prevails  here.  We  have  never  known  another 
mechanical  school  system  that  was  worked  out  and  carried 
out  so  logically,  so  consistently,  and  so  completely.  Per- 
sonally, those  who  are  earnestly  maintaining  this  system 
are  deserving  of  much  credit  for  hard,  painstaking  work, 
and  for  loyalty  —  to  the  system. 

THE   PURPOSE   OF   THIS   STUDY   WHOLLY    CONSTRUCTIVE 

In  attempting  to  evaluate  Portland's  present  educational 
activities,  it  is  apparent  that  we  shall  have  to  deal  primarily 
with  this  long-established,  mechanical  system,  which  is  the 
one  universally  and  overwhelmingly  dominant  factor,  and 
to  study  the  effects  of  this  system  in  the  principal  phases  of 
local  educational  effort.  We  shall  have  to  do  only  inci- 
dentally with  the  personalities  of  those  who  now  chance  to 
be  engaged  in  maintaining  this  system.  Whenever  refer- 
ence is  made  to  individuals,  such  reference  must  be  under- 
stood to  be  purely  impersonal. 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction          127 

Let  it  also  be  understood  that  our  sole  purposes  in  setting 
forth  the  inadequacies  and  the  positive  defects  of  the  present 
system  are,  first,  to  make  apparent  to  everyone,  especially 
to  those  now  directly  involved  in  the  maintenance  of  that 
system,  the  necessity  of  breaking  the  system's  benumbing 
power ;  and,  second,  to  prepare  the  way  for  an  appreciative 
understanding  of  those  principles  and  ideals  of  intelligent 
procedure  that  will  be  advocated  in  place  of  the  present 
mechanism.  The  purpose  of  our  critical  study  is  wholly 
constructive ;  it  is  destructive  only  incidentally  and  unavoid- 
ably. 


The  Nature  of  Portland's  Mechanical  and  Uniform  Sys- 
tem —  its  Effects  and  its  Defects 

The  system,  so  far  as  it  is  revealed  within  the  schools, 
centers  in  the  course  of  study,  and  consists  largely  of  the 
course  of  study  and  of  the  means  and  methods  employed 
in  carrying  out  that  course  of  study.  Table  XIV  shows  the 
scope  and  arrangement  of  the  present  elementary  curricu- 
lum ;  more  than  that,  it  appropriately  suggests,  but  scarcely 
exaggerates,  the  mechanism  that  attends  the  adminis- 
tration of  this  curriculum,  almost  from  the  beginning  to 
the  end.  For  the  sake  of  clearness,  the  elementary  and  the 
high  school  work  will  be  studied  separately. 


The  Elementary   Curriculum    Vivisected  into   Fifty-four 
Dead  Pieces 

As  indicated  by  the  Roman  numerals  in  Table  XIV,  the 
elementary  curriculum  is  first  divided  into  nine  parts,  or 
grades ;  then  each  of  these  grades  is  halved,  as  shown  by  the 
letters  A  and  B ;  finally,  each  half  grade  is  divided  into  three 
parts,  numbered  in  order.  Thus  at  the  outset  is  the  ele- 
mentary curriculum,  that  should  be  instinct  with  life  in  the 


128  The  Portland  Survey 

minds  of  principals,  teachers,  and  pupils,  vivisected  with 
mechanical  accuracy  into  fifty-four  dead  pieces.  This  is  no 
mere  figure  of  speech ;  nor  does  the  mechanical  dismember- 
ment of  the  curriculum  exist  merely  in  the  diagram  which 
the  author  of  this  study  has  drawn.  The  city's  published 
course  of  study,  the  system  of  examinations,  the  scheme  of 
advancing  pupils,  the  method  and  spirit  of  the  supervision 
or  inspection,  and  finally  the  actual  work  in  the  school- 
rooms, all,  in  perfect  mechanical  harmony,  reveal  a  dead, 
fifty-four  times  disjointed  curriculum. 

What  is  a  Living  Curriculum  ? 

We  shall  examine  critically,  in  some  detail,  the  contents 
of  this  dead  curriculum,  and  the  chief  means  of  administer- 
ing it ;  but  first,  let  us  consider  for  a  moment  this  one  char- 
acteristic of  death,  as  contrasted  with  that  of  life,  in  a  cur- 
riculum. A  living  curriculum,  while  it  may  be,  for  the  most 
part  should  be,  broadly  outlined  on  paper,  has  its  real  ex- 
istence in  the  minds  of  teachers,  principals,  and  supervisors ; 
it  is  plastic  and  adaptable,  constantly  undergoing  changes  in 
emphasis  of  its  various  parts,  even  to  the  elimination  of 
some  entirely  and  the  substitution  of  others,  as  the  sym- 
pathetically studied  needs  of  the  particular  children  to  be 
taught  seem  to  require;  the  living  curriculum  ministers 
practically  to  the  ever  and  almost  infinitely  varying  needs 
of  boys  and  girls,  no  two  of  whom  were  made  alike  or  des- 
tined to  be  made  alike;  the  living  curriculum  serves  as 
readily  and  as  well  the  child  whose  mental  processes  depend 
on  concrete  things,  as  that  one  who  readily  grasps  abstract 
ideas;  the  living  curriculum  serves  the  present  needs  of 
every  pupil,  whether  those  needs  be  the  preparation  for  the 
next  steps  that  will  lead  in  due  time  through  a  college  pre- 
paratory course  to  college,  university,  and  a  professional 
career,  or  whether  those  needs  are  for  skill  of  hand  that  will 
enable  a  youth  to  support  himself  honorably,  within  a  year, 
by  rendering  some  worthy  service  to  the  community. 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction  129 


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130  The  Portland  Survey 

What  is  a  Dead  Curriculum? 

A  dead  curriculum  —  Portland's  dead  curriculum  —  is  the 
standard  by  which  the  living  child  is  measured  and  to  which 
he  must  conform ;  if  the  fifteen,  sixteen,  seventeen,  or  even 
eighteen-year  old  child  has  not  yet  transferred  to  his  mem- 
ory parts  thirty-seven  to  fifty-four  inclusive  of  the  dead  and 
comminuted  curriculum,  the  chief  constituents  of  which,  in 
these  parts,  are  abstract  arithmetic  and  technical  grammar, 
then  he  must  begin  with  part  thirty-seven  and  appropriate 
that  and  each  of  the  succeeding  seventeen  parts  in  order,  be- 
fore he  can  even  be  associated  with  youth  of  approximately 
his  own  age,  —  an  important  matter  educationally,  —  before 
he  can  engage  in  studies  suited  to  his  age  and  condition, 
studies  and  exercises  that  will  be  of  immediate  and  practical 
value  to  him  in  the  effort  that  he  must  shortly  make  to  serve 
society  for  the  sake  of  his  own  livelihood. 

Some  Effects  of  Portland's  Dead  Curriculum 

In  June,  1913,  there  were,  in  all  of  the  elementary  schools 
of  Portland,  100  boys  and  girls  from  fifteen  to  eighteen 
years  of  age  just  completing  part  thirty-nine  of  the  elemen- 
tary curriculum  —  in  other  words,  completing  grade  /A ;  at 
this  same  time  there  were  1,310  more  boys  and  girls  of  fif- 
teen, sixteen,  seventeen,  eighteen,  and  a  very  few  even  of 
twenty  to  twenty-one  years  of  age,  who  were  completing  the 
task  of  appropriating  some  one  of  the  pieces  of  the  curricu- 
lum between  the  thirty-ninth  and  the  fifty-fourth.  Here 
were  altogether  1,410  youth  —  more  than  the  enrollment  of 
the  largest  high  school  —  healthy  and  strong  physically, 
probably  most  of  them  normal  mentally,  though  not  brilliant 
in  the  memorizing  of  the  printed  page,  everyone  about  to  at- 
tempt his  varied  active  part  in  the  world's  work,  yet  all 
doomed  to  the  study  —  mainly  the  memorizing  —  of  exactly 
the  same  page  —  pages  prescribed,  though  scarcely  more 
suitable,  for  the  education  of  children  from  ten  to  twelve 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction  131 

years  of  age,  whose  serious  participation  in  the  services  of 
the  community  must  necessarily  be  deferred  from  four  to 
six  years,  and  probably,  in  most  cases,  are  actually  to  be  de- 
ferred much  longer.  On  the  above  date  there  were  1,347 
children  from  nine  to  twelve  years  of  age,  working  right 
beside  those  1,410  youth  from  fifteen  to  eighteen,  doing, 
or  trying  to  do,  exactly  the  same  work  and  in  exactly  the 
same  way.1  The  following  single,  concrete  illustration,  ex- 
treme but  wholly  typical,  will  serve  to  reveal  more  effec- 
tively than  further  discussion  the  role  that  the  elementary 
curriculum  is  made  to  play  in  the  Portland  schools. 

Instance  of  Thoughtless  Routine 

As  a  part  of  the  Portland  school  system  there  is  a  School 
for  the  Deaf,  "  organized  four  years  ago  at  the  request  of 
parents  of  deaf  children,  who  wished  to  have  their  children 
educated  by  the  pure  oral  method  and  keep  them  in  a  home 
environment  while  attending  school,"  the  object  of  which  is 
"  to  reach  those  incapacitated  from  receiving  the  benefits 
offered  under  the  regular  course  of  study."  2 

This  school  of  about  twenty-five  pupils,  quartered  in 
cheerless  rooms  in  the  Buckman  School  building,  was  visited 
on  the  afternoon  of  April  23.  We  pass  no  judgment  what- 
ever on  the  efficiency  of  its  work  in  teaching  articulation  and 
lip-reading  to  its  deaf  pupils ;  our  visit  was  too  brief  to  allow 
us,  were  we  competent,  to  pass  such  judgment.  Our  chief 
purpose  in  visiting  this  school  was  to  find  out  what  those 
who  are  conducting  it  are  trying  to  make  of  their  afflicted 
pupils ;  what  they  are  trying  to  do,  recognizing  the  handicap 
under  which  their  pupils  must  live  all  their  lives,  no  matter 
how  successful  the  school  may  be  in  teaching  articulation 
and  lip-reading  —  what  they  are  trying  to  do  to  discover 
and  to  train  discriminatingly  the  particular  possibilities  of 

1  Figures  taken  from  an  age  and  class-distribution  table  supplied  by  the 
School  Clerk. 

2  Course  of  Study,  1912-13,  page  135. 


132  The  Portland  Survey 

each  child,  to  the  end  that  each  one  may  become  self-support- 
ing and  independent,  capable  of  rendering  to  the  community 
service  that  the  community  requires,  and  so  entitled  to  re- 
ceive from  the  community  adequate  compensation. 

Anticipating  our  visit  to  this  school,  we  could  not  believe 
it  possible  that  we  should  find  here  also  the  same  unthink- 
ing routine  that  we  had  hitherto  found  universally  in  the 
regular  elementary  schools  —  the  routine  of  carrying  out 
the  mechanically  prescribed  curriculum,  without  regard 
either  for  the  pupils'  individual  needs  or  for  the  usefulness 
of  the  prescriptions  in  fitting  anyone  for  the  service  of  so- 
ciety. But  our  anticipations  were  not  realized ;  for  we  found 
that  unthinking  routine  —  accentuated  by  conditions  that  cry 
out  for  something  so  entirely  different  —  dominates  this 
school  for  the  deaf  as  completely  as  it  does  every  other. 
The  sole  discoverable  reason  for  the  segregation  of  the  pu- 
pils of  this  school  is  to  teach  them  articulation  and  lip-read- 
ing so  that  they  may  take  identically  the  same  course  of 
study  that  every  normal  child  must  take!  The  head  teacher 
of  this  school,  in  response  to  questions,  declared  it  to  be  the 
purpose  of  the  school  to  make  deaf  children  just  as  nearly 
like  normal  children  as  possible ;  hence,  in  carrying  out  this 
purpose,  their  chief  aim  is  to  teach  exactly  the  same  sub- 
jects, to  maintain  the  same  standards,  to  pass  the  same  ex- 
aminations, that  are  taught,  maintained,  and  passed  in  the 
regular  schools.  The  official  description  of  the  school,  in- 
deed, is  in  full  harmony  with  the  purpose  that  animates  its 
head.  "  The  course  of  study  of  the  city  schools,"  so  runs 
this  description,  "  is  followed  as  closely  as  possible."  1 

Of  course  the  purpose  of  making  a  deaf  child  like  a  nor- 
mal child,  in  the  sense  of  overcoming  as  far  as  possible  the 
deaf  child's  defect,  so  that  in  the  life  that  he  leads  his  deaf- 
ness may  be  no  considerable  handicap,  is  entirely  practical 
and  most  commendable.  But  to  think  of  accomplishing  this 
result  merely  by  requiring  the  deaf  child  to  learn  the  same 

1  Course  of  Study,  1912-13,  page  135. 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction  133 

amount  of  abstract  arithmetic  and  technical  grammar  that 
the  normal  child  is  compelled  to  learn! 

Among  the  pupils  of  the  school,  most  of  whom,  as  might 
be  expected,  are  much  over  age  in  comparison  with  the  work 
of  the  curriculum  with  which  they  are  engaged,  was  ob- 
served a  boy  with  the  physical  proportions  of  a  good-sized 
man. 

"  How  old  is  this  boy  ?  "  we  asked. 

"  He  is  seventeen,"  replied  the  head  teacher. 

"  How  long  has  he  been  here,  and  what  is  he  studying 
now?" 

"  He  has  been  here  a  year  and  a  half ;  he  is  now  doing 
fifth-grade  work." 

"  How  long  will  he  probably  continue  in  school  ?  " 

"  Three  years  or  more." 

"  Will  he  be  required  to  pursue  the  same  course  that 
all  pupils  now  in  the  fifth  grade  must  pursue,  technical 
grammar  and  all  ?  " 

"  Yes,  it  is  our  aim  to  make  him  like  normal  chil- 
dren." 

"  But  what  good  will  so  many  years'  study  of  purely 
technical  grammar  do  this  young  man  who,  presumably, 
must  soon  try  to  earn  his  own  living  in  some  way  ?  " 

"  Why,  technical  grammar  broadens  the  mind !  "  re- 
plied the  head  of  the  school,  obviously  somewhat  sur- 
prised at  the  question. 

Think  of  it!  Three  or  more  years'  study  of  technical 
grammar  to  "  broaden  the  mind  "  of  a  youth  now  in  grade 
five,  struggling  with  part  twenty-six  of  the  rigid  educa- 
tional mechanism,  but  already  old  enough  either  to  be 
through  with  his  secondary  education  or  to  be  out  of  school 
bearing  a  man's  part  in  the  world's  work !  What  will  this 
unfortunate  young  man  be  able  to  do  at  twenty-one,  when 
he  goes  out  from  this  child's  school,  his  sole  trained  equip- 
ment a  mind  "  broadened  "  by  several  years'  study  of  tech- 
nical grammar? 


134  The  Portland  Survey 

Mechanical  Uniformity  in  the  Curriculum  the  Universal 
Ideal  of  tlie  Elementary  Schools 

The  treatment  of  this  boy  —  young  man  —  makes  to 
stand  out  clearly,  but  does  not  exaggerate  in  the  least, 
the  spirit  and  the  thoughtless  routine  that  dominate  the 
elementary  schools.  The  only  recognition  accorded  the 
individualities  of  pupils,  no  matter  how  much  they  differ 
through  peculiar  strength,  weakness,  or  defects,  is  the  recog- 
nition that  the  school  mechanism  compels;  their  treatment 
varies  only  in  so  far  as  it  is  necessary  to  vary  it  temporarily 
that  everyone  may  learn  exactly  the  same  things  and  in  the 
same  way  —  from  part  one  to  part  fifty-four  inclusive  — 
that  everyone  else  must  learn.  All  must  be  made  just  as 
nearly  alike  as  possible.  To  this  mechanical  end  every  phase 
of  the  elementary  curriculum  and  its  administration  seems 
to  be  adjusted  —  and  very  nicely  and  thoughtfully  adjusted. 
This  adjustment  can  best  be  revealed  through  a  brief  analy- 
sis and  examination  of  the  several  chief  aspects  of  the 
curriculum  and  of  its  administration. 

The  Mechanical  Form  and  Prescriptions  of  the  Elementary 
Course  of  Study 

The  form  in  which  the  elementary  course  of  study  is  out- 
lined and  prescribed  is  characteristic  of  the  universal 
mechanism.  Following  is  a  sample : 

SEVENTH  B  GRADE 

PART  FORTY 

Reading.    Cyr's  Fifth  Reader,  pages  97  to  142. 

Arithmetic.    Smith's  Practical  Arithmetic,  pages  202  to  216.     (For  forms  of 

analysis,  read  parts  21  and  22.) 
Language,     (i)  Buehler's  Grammar,  pages  81  to  95  inclusive.     (2)  and  (3) 

See  part  31. 
Geography.    Natural  School  Geography,  pages  124  to  137,  to  end  of  "China." 

(Pages  40, 41,  and  42.)    Map  Drawing  —  The  Humboldt  Geographical  Note 

Book,  part  4  (No.  51),  pages  15  to  32  inclusive. 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction          135 

Spelling.    (Parts  40,  41,  and  42.)     Reed's  Word  Lessons,  pages  115  to  127 

inclusive. 

Writing.    Outlook  Writing  System  No.  6. 
Drawing.    Prang's  Text  Book  of  Art  Education,  Book  VI. 
Music.    New  Educational  Third  Music  Reader. 
Physiology.    Krohn's  Graded  Lessons  in  Physiology  and  Hygiene,  Chapters  X, 

XI,  and  XII. 

PART  FORTY-ONE 

Reading.    Cyr's  Fifth  Reader,  pages  143  to  179. 

Arithmetic.     Smith's  Practical  Arithmetic,  pages  217  to  231.     (For  forms  of 

analysis,  read  parts  21  and  22.) 
Language,     (i)  Buehler's  Grammar,  pages  96  to  108  inclusive.     (2)  and  (3) 

See  part  31. 
Geography.    Natural  School  Geography,  pages  137  to  149,  to  end  of  "Hawaiian 

Islands." 
For  work  in  Spelling,,  Writing,  Drawing,  Music,  Physiology,  and  Map  Drawing, 

see  part  40. 

PART  FORTY-TWO 

Reading.     Cyr's  Fifth  Reader,  pages  187  to  228. 

Arithmetic.  Smith's  Practical  Arithmetic,  pages  232  to  245.  (For  forms  of 
analysis,  read  parts  21  and  22.) 

Language,  (i)  Buehler's  Grammar,  pages  no  to  121  inclusive.  (2)  and  (3) 
See  part  31.  ;# 

Geography.  Natural  School  Geography.  Take  supplements:  (i)  Insular  Pos- 
sessions, (2)  Oregon. 

For  work  in  Spelling,  Writing,  Drawing,  Music,  Physiology,  and  Map  Drawing, 
see  part  40. 

This  prescription  for  the  Seventh  B  grade  is  fairly  char- 
acteristic of  the  prescriptions  for  all  the  other  grades,  with 
these  exceptions :  the  outlines  in  arithmetic  for  the  first  four 
grades,  that  is  through  Fourth  B,  covering  the  method  of 
presenting  the  chief  topics  to  beginners,  are  full,  detailed, 
suggestive,  and  helpful  to  the  teacher;  there  are  also  given 
brief  outlines  of  method  in  reading  and  language  for  the 
first  grade.  With  these  and  two  or  three  other  similar  but 
much  less  important  exceptions,  the  entire  elementary  course 
of  study  as  placed  in  the  hands  of  teachers  and  principals 
for  execution  consists  in  an  arithmetical  division  by  pages, 
and  fractions  of  pages,  of  prescribed  textbooks. 

Obviously,  the  only  thought  devoted  to  the  formulation 


136  The  Portland  Survey 

of  the  course  of  study  was  the  simple  mathematical  thought 
necessary  to  parcel  out  the  pages  of  books  as  indicated.  This 
becomes  plainly  apparent  when  one  follows  through  several 
grades  the  prescriptions  in  a  single  subject.  For  illustra- 
tion, the  prescriptions  in  geography,  beginning  with  Sixth 
A  and  continuing  through  Seventh  B,  are  from  the  Natural 
School  Geography  and  are  as  follows: 

SIXTH  A 

Part  Thirty-one:  Pages  5  to  19,  to  end  of  "Wearing  Away  of  Land." 

Part  Thirty-two:  Pages  19  to  30,  to  end  of  "Government  and  Religion." 

Part  Thirty-three:  Pages  30  to  41,  to  end  of  "North  America." 

Part  Thirty-four:  Pages  43  to  55,  to  beginning  of  "Northeastern  Section." 

Part  Thirty-five:  Pages  55  to  66,  to  end  of  "West  Virginia." 

Part  Thirty-six:  Pages  66  to  77,  to  end  of  "Southern  Section." 

Part  Thirty-seven:  Pages  79  to  93,  to  end  of  "Central  America." 

Part  Thirty-eight:  Pages  93  to  107,  to  end  of  "  South  America." 

Part  Thirty-nine:  Pages  109  to  124,  to  end  of  "Switzerland." 

Part  Forty:  Pages  124  to  137,  to  end  of  "China." 

Part  Forty-one:  Pages  137  to  149,  to  end  of  "Hawaiian  Islands." 

Part  Forty-two:  Supplements,  (i)  Insular  Possessions,  (2)  Oregon. 

Neither  by  example  nor  by  precept  do  such  outlines  sug- 
gest to  teachers  and  principals  any  thought  of  the  function 
of  the  various  prescribed  subjects  as  means  of  education; 
any  consideration  of  the  relative  importance  for  Portland 
children,  not  to  mention  different  groups  of  Portland  chil- 
dren, of  the  numerous  topics  treated  in  textbooks  designed 
for  use  throughout  the  country ;  any  correlation  in  the  treat- 
ment of  closely  related  subjects ;  any  adaptation  of  method 
to  the  educative  ends  sought  through  the  use  of  this  text- 
book material.  On  the  contrary,  whether  so  intended  or 
not,  the  one  all-dominating  suggestion  of  the  published 
course  of  study  for  the  elementary  schools  is  that  so  many 
pages  of  certain  textbooks  are  to  be  learned,  and  at  a  cer- 
tain time  and  in  a  certain  order.  This  suggestion,  rein- 
forced by  the  system  of  uniform  city  examinations  from  the 
fourth  grade  on  and  by  supervisory  inspection,  has  become 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction  137 

the  chief  guiding  purpose  in  the  work  of  teachers  above  the 
primary  grades;  it  could  scarcely  be  otherwise. 

Some  Significant  Characteristics  of  the  Content  of  the  Ele- 
mentary Course  of  Study 

In  respect  to  content  —  and  lack  of  content  —  the  ele- 
mentary course  of  study  presents  the  following  significant 
characteristics : 1 

1.  The  absolute  uniformity  of  subject-matter  to  be 
learned,  both  in  kind,  amount,  and  order,  by  all  pupils, 
and  in  all  parts  of  the  city,  regardless  of  age,  mental  or 
physical  characteristics,  past  experiences,  or  future  pros- 
pects. 

2.  The  overwhelmingly  abstract  and  bookish  char- 
acter of  the  course  as  a  whole,  offering  far  too  little 
that  is  suitable  to  the  education  of  that  large  minority, 
if  not  actual  majority,  of  children  who  must  be  educated 
through  contact  with  concrete  things. 

3.  The  excessive  amount  of  time  given  to  technical 
grammar. 

4.  Inadequate  attention  to  composition,  both  oral  and 
written. 

5.  The  excessive  emphasis  on  theoretical,   abstract 
arithmetic. 

6.  Deferring  the  beginning  of  the  study  of  United 
States  History  to  the  eighth  grade,  a  point  in  the  course 
which  probably  at  least  one  third  of  all  Portland  chil- 
dren never  reach. 

7.  The  limitation  of  nature  study  to  the  first  two 
grades. 

THE   SUBJECT-MATTER    FURTHER   ANALYZED 

If  the  bare  statement  of  these  characteristics  is  not  suf- 
ficient, a  brief  discussion  of  them  in  order  will  suffice  to  re- 
veal their  chief  significance. 

1  See  Table  XIV,  page  129. 


138  The  Portland  Survey 

Subject-Matter  Rather  than  the  Child  Made  the  Focus  of 

Attention 

The  uniformity  of  subject-matter,  both  in  kind  and 
amount,  can  mean  in  practice  only  that  the  attention  of 
teachers,  and  all  concerned  in  educating  children,  is  focused 
on  definitely  prescribed  matter  to  be  learned  —  not  on  the 
diverse  needs  of  the  children  to  be  educated.  What  should 
be  the  variable  in  the  process  of  education  is  made  fixed; 
the  endlessly  variable  of  human  characteristics  and  needs 
is  ignored. 

No  Adequate  Provision  for  the  Effective  Education  of  a 
Large  Portion  of  Children 

It  has  been  demonstrated  in  schools  over  and  over  again, 
and  is  a  matter  of  the  most  common  observation,  that  a 
very  large  proportion  of  children  learn  with  much  difficulty 
from  books,  especially  when  they  advance  beyond  the  sim- 
plest concrete  ideas ;  that  a  large  majority,  not  all,  of  these 
same  children  are  naturally  intelligent,  are  as  capable  of 
improvement  through  education  adapted  to  them  as  are 
children  who  learn  more  readily  from  books.  Portland's 
elementary  course  of  study  provides  very  little  indeed  — 
only  a  bit  of  manual  training  and  sewing,  not  more  than  the 
easiest  book-learner  ought  to  have  —  that  is  suitable  for  the 
adequate  education  of  this  type  of  child.  This  deficiency 
in  the  course  of  study  is  doubtless  responsible  in  no  small 
degree  for  the  large  number  of  over-age  pupils  in  the  gram- 
mar grades,  and  for  the  failure  of  many  of  these  over-age 
pupils  to  remain  in  school  after  the  period  of  compulsory 
attendance  has  been  completed. 

Excessive  Attention  Given  to  Technical  Grammar  Largely 
Wasted  Effort 

In  the  published  course  of  study  the  general  term  "  lan- 
guage "  is  used  to  designate  work  both  in  technical  gram- 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction          139 

mar  and  in  composition.  In  practice  three  exercises  per 
week  are  devoted  to  the  former,  and  two  to  the  latter.  So 
far  as  could  be  discovered  by  listening  to  several  exercises, 
both  in  grammar  and  in  composition,  and  by  talking  with 
teachers,  these  subjects  as  taught  are  just  about  as  inde- 
pendent as  arithmetic  and  history.  It  does  not  appear  that 
grammar,  in  the  elementary  course  of  study,  is  contributing 
"  to  a  deeper  appreciation  of  literature  and  to  the  develop- 
ment of  power  in  composition,"  as  the  "  Syllabus  of  the 
Course  in  English  "  1  for  the  Portland  High  Schools  rightly 
maintains  to  be  the  sole  function  of  this  subject. 

The  grammar  prescribed  is  abstract  and  technical  in  the 
extreme,  and  the  assignment  for  every  grade  far  beyond 
the  real  comprehension  of  most  pupils  of  that  grade.  Be- 
ginning with  Third  B,  and  continuing  through,  Sixth  A, 
pupils  have  been  required  to  study,  in  Modern  English  Les- 
sons, about  as  much  grammar  as  could  be  made  of  practical 
value  in  the  entire  elementary  course ;  but  with  Sixth  B  the 
extensive  study  of  technical  grammar  begins  in  real  earnest. 
From  this  point  on,  the  assignments  are  from  Buehler's 
Modern  English  Grammar,  a  book  best  suited  to  high  school 
grades,  usable  in  the  highest  grammar  grade,  but  entirely 
out  of  place  in  sixth  and  seventh  grades.  After  three  and 
one  half  years'  study  of  this  technical  book  in  the  elementary 
schools,  from  page  15  to  page  358  inclusive,  the  same  book 
is  again  prescribed  for  three  years  of  further  study  in  the 
high  schools !  To  make  the  matter  worse,  the  high  school 
instruction  begins  at  the  beginning,  with  the  simple  sen- 
tence and  the  parts  of  speech. 

It  is  scarcely  too  much  to  say  that  the  time  now  devoted 
to  technical  grammar  in  grades  six  to  nine  inclusive  is 
wasted.  In  these  grades  not  more  than  one  half  as  much 
time  as  now  should  be  given  to  grammar,  and  that  not  tech- 
nical, but  practical  and  comprehensible  to  the  pupil. 

1  Page  166. 


140  The  Portland  Survey 

Composition  Neglected 

The  time  and  attention  devoted  to  composition  is  as  in- 
adequate as  that  devoted  to  grammar  is  excessive.  While 
two  exercises  per  week  are  given  to  the  former  and  three 
to  the  latter,  composition  does  not  appear  actually  to  re- 
ceive as  much  as  two  fifths  of  the  effort  expended  on  "  lan- 
guage." It  is  quite  possible  that  the  final  term  examina- 
tions are  largely  responsible  for  the  preponderance  of  em- 
phasis on  grammar,  out  of  proportion  to  the  time  allotment. 
However  this  may  be,  typical  term  examinations  fairly  rep- 
resent the  relative  importance  that  seems  to  be  accorded 
these  two  phases  of  "  language  " ;  in  these  examinations 
the  relative  value  of  composition,  as  compared  with  that 
of  grammar,  certainly  appears  as  something  less  than  the 
ratio  of  two  to  three.  Following  is  a  copy  of  the  final  term 
examination,  given  in  January,  1913,  and  covering  the  work 
in  grammar  for  the  seventh  grade : 

GRAMMAR  EXAMINATION  QUESTIONS  —  SEVENTH  GRADE 

PART  37 
I.   (a)  Define  Complement. 

(b)  Give  example  of  each  kind  of  complement  in  a  sentence. 

IT.   (a)  Select  the  complements  in  the  following,  tell  the  kind,  giving  reason 
for  your  answer  in  each  case: 

1.  A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath. 

2.  The  great  forest  became  the  home  of  Robin  Hood. 

3.  They  considered  him  a  brave  sea-captain, 
(b)  Define  Indirect  Object. 

PART  38 
I.   (a)  Define  a  modifier. 

(b)  What  is  the  difference  between  a  phrase  and  a  clause? 

(c)  Construct  a  sentence  in  which  the  subject  is  modified  by  a  phrase;  one 

in  which  the  verb  is  modified  by  a  clause. 

II.  Tell  whether  the  underlined  words  are  objects,  attribute  complements,  or 
modifiers: 

Some  men  turned  traitors. 
Some  men  turned  away. 
Some  men  turned  their  heads. 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction  141 

PART  39 

I.   (a)  Point  out  the  indirect  object  in  the  following: 

Edward  gave  us  some  blotters, 
(b)  Change  your  sentence  into  the  passive  form. 

II.   (a)  Define  an  appositive. 

(b)  Construct  a  sentence  containing  an  appositive. 

(c)  Diagram  (Written  Analysis) : 

Some  boys  from  our  school  played  a  fine  game  of  football  yesterday. 

PART  40 

I.   (a)  Select  the  substantive  phrases  and  clauses  in  the  following  sentences 
and  give  their  use: 

It  is  now  possible  to  cross  the  Atlantic  in  five  days. 
I  asked  Grace  if  she  would  lend  me  a  pencil. 
All  age  and  youth  must  learn  the  truth, 
That  nothing  pays  that's  wrong. 

(b)  Construct  a  sentence  with  a  clause  used  as  subject;  one  containing  a 
clause  used  as  attribute  complement. 

In  these  sentences  point  out  the  subject  and  verb  in  each  clause. 

II.   (a)  What  is  an  Independent  Element? 

(b)  In  the  following  sentences  select  the  independent  elements  and  classify 
them: 

Jump,  boys!  It's  our  last  chance! 

We  grumble  a  little  now  and  then,  to  be  sure. 

PART  41 

I.   (a)  How  are  sentences  classified  with  respect  to  form? 

(b)  Write  a  sentence  illustrating  each. 

(c)  Tell  the  kind  of  sentence  and  give  reason: 

1.  God  has  made  America  the  schoolhouse  of  the  world. 

2.  A  cruel  story  runs  on  wheels,  and  every  hand  oils  the  wheels  as 

they  run. 

3.  Smooth  runs  the  water  where  the  brook  runs  deep. 

II.   (a)  What  is  an  elliptical  sentence? 
(b)  Complete  the  following  sentences: 

1.  He  was  busy  while  here. 

2.  He  entered,  hat  in  hand,  and  sat  down. 

3.  The  truth  is  better  expressed  by  Solomon  than  him. 


142  The  Portland  Survey 

PART  42 

I.   (a)  What  is  meant  by  "parts  of  speech"? 

(b)  How  can  one  determine  to  what  part  of  speech  a  word  belongs? 

(c)  Define  pronoun,  adjective,  adverb. 

II.    (a)  Tell  the  part  of  speech  of  each  word: 

1.  The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  homeward. 

2.  The  Danish  king  could  not  stop  the  ocean  tide. 

3.  I  do  not  doubt  his  strange  story. 

The  examinations  in  grammar  given  at  the  same  time 
and  covering  the  work  of  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  grades, 
were  nearly  as  extensive  for  each  grade  as  the  above.  At 
the  same  time  the  examination  in  composition  for  all  these 
grades  —  four,  five,  six,  and  seven  —  consisted  of  the  fol- 
lowing, which  was  the  identical  examination  given  to  these 
grades  in  June,  1912: 

COMPOSITION  TEST 
January,  1913 

Fourth,  Fifth,  Sixth,  and  Seventh  Grades 

The  subject-matter  of  composition  will  be  taken  from  the  term's  work  hi 
reading.  Each  teacher  will  select  all  or  part  of  some  lesson  read  by  the  class 
during  the  term,  read  it  aloud  once,  and  require  the  pupils  to  reproduce  it  in 
such  language  as  they  can  command.  Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  no 
pupil  has  access  to  any  reading  book  while  undergoing  examination  in  compo- 
sition. Unless  physically  incapacitated  the  teacher  should  read  the  selection 
herself,  rather  than  delegate  such  duty  to  a  pupil.  In  fact,  no  pupil  should  have 
any  inkling  of  the  subject-matter  of  the  composition  until  it  is  read  by  the 
teacher. 

Too  Much  Time  Devoted  to  Abstract  Arithmetic 

Arithmetic  claims  an  undue  amount  of  time  and  atten- 
tion, both  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  elementary  course, 
and,  as  a  purely  abstract  subject,  in  the  higher  grammar 
grades.  Most  children  can  master  number  facts  at  six  and 
even  five  years  of  age,  and  many  of  this  age  begin  to  de- 
velop some  reasoning  powers ;  but,  as  has  been  shown  in  the 
work  of  many  excellent  schools,  only  a  little  time  can  be 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction          143 

spent  to  the  best  advantage  on  arithmetic  in  the  first  grade. 
If  the  systematic  and  serious  study  of  this  subject  is  post- 
poned until  the  second,  or  even  until  the  third  grade,  it  is 
found  that  by  the  end  of  the  fourth  grade  pupils  are  as 
far  advanced  in  their  arithmetical  knowledge  as  they  are 
when  arithmetic  is  made  a  principal  subject  from  the  very 
beginning. 

In  the  higher  grammar  grades  the  present  course  in  ab- 
stract arithmetic  —  abstract  for  inexperienced  pupils,  even 
though  using  concrete  terms  —  might  advantageously  give 
place  to  algebra  and  constructive  geometry  for  those  pupils 
whose  interests  are  best  served  by  the  pursuit  of  abstract 
mathematics  in  high  school  and  perhaps  beyond,  and  to 
practical  applications  to  concrete  things,  with  which  they  are 
actually  dealing,  for  those  pupils  whose  education  needs  to 
be  concrete  instead  of  bookish. 


Systematic  Instruction  in  United  States  History  Not 
General  Enough 

The  most  elementary  education  should  include  some  sys- 
tematic knowledge  of  the  history  of  our  country.  The 
soundness  of  this  proposition  is  evidently  recognized  in  the 
provision  for  the  study  of  history  in  the  highest  two  gram- 
mar grades.  But  this  provision  does  not  reach  at  all  the 
need  of  probably  one  third  of  all  children  who  never  reach 
the  eighth  grade,  and  only  partially  meets  that  of  probably 
one  fourth  of  those  who,  entering  the  eighth  grade,  fail  to 
complete  the  ninth. 

It  is  desirable  for  all  pupils,  and  of  prime  importance  for 
those  who  are  not  to  complete  the  elementary  course,  that 
the  systematic  study  of  the  history  of  the  United  States  be 
begun  with  the  fifth  or  sixth  grade,  and  covered  in  a  simple 
way  by  the  end  of  the  seventh.  There  are  several  textbooks 
available  for  this  purpose,  presenting  the  matter  largely 
from  the  biographical  standpoint  and  well  suited  to  the  in- 
terest and  capacity  of  pupils  of  the  grades  indicated. 


144  The  Portland  Survey 

The  Course  in  Nature  Study  Quite  Inadequate 

A  practical,  concrete  course  in  nature  study,  based  not  on 
books,  but  on  the  phenomena  of  nature  themselves,  ought 
to  form  a  part  of  every  elementary  school  curriculum,  from 
the  lowest  to  the  highest  grade.  Such  a  course,  correlated 
with  language,  literature,  physiology,  and  geography,  and 
efficiently  carried  out,  would  do  something  to  modify  Port- 
land's present  predominantly  abstract  and  bookish  courses. 
The  present  course  in  nature  study,  limited  to  the  lowest 
two  primary  grades,  is  outlined  in  a  way  much  better 
adapted,  so  far  as  it  goes,  to  higher  grammar  grades  than  to 
the  lowest  primary. 


THE   SYSTEM   OF   PROMOTIONAL   EXAMINATIONS 

Nature  of  the  Examinations 

The  system  of  examinations  for  the  promotion  of  pupils 
from  grade  to  grade,  beginning  with  Fourth  A,  is  in  com- 
plete harmony  with  the  form  and  spirit  of  the  course  of 
study ;  indeed,  the  examinations  are  really  a  necessary  com- 
plement to  the  course  of  study.  As  has  already  been  seen, 
the  course  of  study  prescribes,  chiefly  by  designating  pages 
and  portions  of  pages,  just  what  shall  be  learned  in  each  of 
the  fifty-four  parts  into  which  the  elementary  school  course 
is  divided  with  something  like  mathematical  precision ;  uni- 
form examinations  for  the  city,  issued  under  the  direction 
of  the  Superintendent,  assume  to  test,  part  by  part,  every 
pupil's  success  in  taking  the  fifty-four  prescriptions.  Sam- 
ples of  these  examinations  have  been  quoted.  These 
uniform  examinations  are  given  at  the  end  of  each  term,  or 
half-year  of  work,  and  each  one  covers  three  of  the  fifty- 
four  parts  of  the  curriculum.  Mid-term  examinations  of 
similar  character  and  purpose  are  given  under  the  direction 
of  the  elementary  school  principals,  each  principal  control- 
ling the  examinations  in  his  own  school. 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Insiruction  145 

A  pupil's  promotion  depends,  one  half  upon  the  results 
of  these  two  formal  examinations,  and  one  half  upon  the 
teacher's  estimate  of  his  daily  recitations,  in  this  way :  of  a 
possible  maximum  of  one  hundred  credits  in  any  subject, 
fifty  —  ten  each  month  for  the  term  —  may  be  secured  on 
daily  recitations,  twenty  on  the  principal's  mid-term  exami- 
nation, and  thirty  on  the  Superintendent's  final  examina- 
tion. While  nominally  the  examinations  count  only  one 
half,  and  the  final  examination  only  thirty  per  cent.,  toward 
the  possible  maximum  number  of  credits,  the  effect  of  the 
whole  scheme  —  and  it  must  almost  inevitably  be  so  —  is 
to  concentrate  the  efforts  of  teachers  and  pupils  on  prepara- 
tion for  the  passing  of  the  final  examinations.  Under 
these  conditions  the  best  teacher  can  scarcely  avoid  adjust- 
ing her  efforts,  not  in  the  way  that  she  thinks  will  best  serve 
the  educational  interests  of  her  pupil,  but  in  the  way  that 
she  thinks  will  best  prepare  the  pupil  for  passing  an  exami- 
nation, issued  by  one  who  probably  never  even  saw  that 
pupil,  and  who  certainly  has  no  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
pupil's  capacity  and  needs. 

Efforts  Distorted  by  Anticipations  of  Examinations 

With  scarcely  an  exception,  the  several  principals  and 
teachers  with  whom  the  system  of  examinations  was  dis- 
cussed at  length,  expressed  emphatic  disapproval  and  based 
their  disapproval  on  sound  pedagogical  grounds.  Most  of 
them  felt  that  the  examinations  were  "  catchy,"  that,  as  one 
expressed  it,  some  unimportant  footnote  was  quite  likely  to 
be  made  the  subject  of  examination.  With  such  anticipa- 
tions concerning  the  examinations,  what  else  can  teachers 
be  expected  to  do  than  to  spend  much  of  their  best  effort 
in  preparing  their  pupils  —  which  means  chiefly  storing  their 
memories  —  with  relatively  unimportant  facts,  that  they  may 
be  able  to  answer  the  "  catchy  "  questions  that  are  likely  to 
occur  in  the  examinations  ?  Under  these  conditions,  neither 
pupils  nor  teachers  are  in  an  attitude  to  pursue  a  subject  on 


146  The  Portland  Survey 

its  merits,  to  give  much  or  little  attention  to  the  various 
facts  and  phases  of  that  subject  in  accordance  with  the  real 
relative  importance  of  those  facts  and  phases;  their  efforts 
and  judgment  are  constantly  distorted  by  the  desire  to  for- 
tify themselves  against  examination  attacks  at  points  that 
would  ordinarily,  and  probably  rightly,  be  more  or  less  neg- 
lected. So  in  addition  to  the  constantly  distorting  influence 
of  the  thought  of  the  probable  character  of  examinations, 
it  seems  to  be  the  practice  to  give  at  least  one  full  week  to  a 
special  preparation  for  the  final  term  examinations. 

Whether  the  prevalent  conception  of  teachers  and  princi- 
pals regarding  the  final  examinations  is  justified  or  not  — 
two  complete  sets  of  these  examinations  that  have  been 
studied,  somewhat  carefully,  seem  scarcely  to  warrant  the 
characterization  of  "  catchy  "  —  is  of  no  consequence  in  this 
connection;  the  effect  of  their  conception  on  their  work  is 
the  same. 

Examination  Time  Spent  Unprofitably 

The  time  actually  given  up  to  the  final  examinations,  one 
full  week  at  the  end  of  each  term,  is  worthy  of  considera- 
tion. Is  one  twentieth  of  every  term  profitably  spent  in 
exercises  whose  chief  or  sole  purpose  is  to  reveal  to  teachers 
what  they  already  know  ?  Any  competent  teacher  ought  to 
know,  thinks  she  knows,  and  probably  does  know,  as  much 
about  the  ability  of  at  least  nine  tenths  of  her  pupils  before 
as  after  one  of  these  formal  examinations.  But  has  the  final 
examination  some  other  purpose  than  a  revelation  of  the 
pupil's  knowledge,  or  lack  of  knowledge?  Is  it  given  as  a 
means  of  instruction  to  the  pupil  ?  If  so,  then  the  exemption 
of  pupils  from  final  examinations  under  certain  conditions, 
as  is  done,  giving  them  a  week's  vacation  —  rather,  depriv- 
ing them  of  a  week's  instruction  by  which  other  pupils  profit 
—  is  scarcely  defensible. 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction  147 

The  Scheme  of  Promotion  Advances  Pupils  According  to 
Their  Ability  to  Meet  Fixed  Requirements 

Just  as  the  system  of  examinations  is  in  complete  har- 
mony with  the  form  and  spirit  of  the  course  of  study,  so  is 
the  scheme  of  promotion  in  complete  harmony  with  the 
form  and  spirit  both  of  the  course  of  study  and  of  the  sys- 
tem of  examinations.  These  three  complementary  factors  — 
course  of  study,  examinations,  promotion  —  make  up  the  es- 
sential whole  in  the  pupil's  educational  life. 

As  the  pupil  acquires  part  by  part  each  one  of  the  fifty- 
four  parts  of  the  course  of  study,  and  demonstrates  his  ac- 
quisitions in  examinations,  he  is  advanced  on  the  educa- 
tional highway.  Those  who  acquire  easily  what  is  pre- 
scribed for  them,  advance  rapidly ;  those  who  take  the  pre- 
scriptions with  difficulty,  advance  slowly.  Some  evidence 
that  the  scheme  works  is  suggested  by  the  fact  that  there 
are  children  of  eleven,  twelve,  thirteen,  fourteen,  and  fifteen 
years  of  age  in  every  one  of  the  elementary  grades,  from 
the  first  to  the  ninth.1  This  plan  of  advancement  is  as  it 
should  be  —  if  education  consists  in  learning  certain  pre- 
scribed things.  It  is  as  it  should  not  be,  if  education  con- 
sists in  developing  the  natural  capacities  of  children  through 
whatever  means  may  be  found  most  effective  with  each  in- 
dividual child. 

THE   CLASSROOM   INSTRUCTION 

Actual  Instruction  in  the  Classrooms  Generally  in 
Harmony  with  the  System 

Personal  observation  of  the  work  and  inquiry  into  the 
conditions,  methods,  and  results,  in  more  than  fifty  elemen- 
tary classrooms,  in  nine  different  buildings,  showed  the 
actual  instruction  in  the  schools  to  be,  on  the  whole,  in  sub- 
stantial harmony  with  the  system  as  already  described.  The 

1  See  38th  Annual  Report,  page  32.  The  age  and  class  distribution  sheet 
for  June,  1913,  shows  the  same  thing  to  be  true. 


148  The  Portland  Survey 

tmiformitizing  and  mechanizing  effects  of  the  system  were 
everywhere  apparent  in  the  grammar  grades,  but  not  so 
universally  in  the  primary,  particularly  in  the  first  primary 
grades. 

Work  in  the  Lowest  Grades  Good,  Very  Good,  and 
Superior 

On  the  whole,  the  work  observed  in  the  lowest  three 
grades  —  the  primary  —  was  good,  much  of  it  very  good, 
some  of  it  distinctly  superior,  equal  to  the  best  that  the 
observer  has  ever  witnessed  anywhere.  The  principal  sub- 
jects of  these  grades,  reading  and  arithmetic,  were  generally 
taught  skilfully  and  by  intelligent  methods;  several  teach- 
ers manifested  skill  and  ability  in  these  subjects  of  very 
high  order.  In  their  classes,  the  results  were  quite  remark- 
able, especially  in  reading;  children  of  the  first  grade  were 
able  to  read  matter  of  considerable  difficulty,  and  not  pre- 
viously seen,  with  fluency,  understanding,  and  good  expres- 
sion. While  the  results  of  the  instruction  in  primary  arith- 
metic were  not  much  observed,  the  methods  in  use,  sug- 
gested by  outlines  and  instructions  from  the  Superintend- 
ent's office,  were  intelligent,  intelligible,  and  interesting  to 
the  children. 

Work  in  the  Grammar  Grades  Much  Inferior  to  That  in 
the  Primary 

While  several  teachers  of  the  grammar  grades  whose 
work  was  studied  were  probably  equal  in  ability  to  the  best 
of  the  primary  teachers,  and  while  the  grammar  teachers  on 
the  whole  seemed  to  compare  favorably  in  ability  with  the 
primary  teachers,  the  work  observed  in  the  grammar  grades, 
both  in  methods  and  in  results,  seemed  to  be,  as  a  whole,  de- 
cidedly inferior  to  that  observed  in  the  primary.  With  few 
exceptions,  and  these  only  partial  exceptions,  made  such 
chiefly  by  contrast  with  the  prevailing  conditions,  the  regu- 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction          149 

lar  classroom  work  in  the  grammar  grades  was  character- 
ized by  routine,  lack  of  originality  of  method,  and  absence 
of  any  evidence  of  genuine  interest,  not  to  say  enthusiasm, 
in  the  work,  on  the  part  of  both  teachers  and  pupils. 
While  they  were  generally  busy,  even  in  a  sense  earnest, 
their  busyness  and  earnestness  seemed  perfunctory  and 
forced,  rather  than  spontaneous  and  independent.  Aside 
from  several  gymnastic  exercises,  which  were  generally 
good,  and  in  some  cases  excellent,  just  one  grammar  school 
exercise  was  observed  which  was  manifestly  enlisting  the 
deep  and  genuine  interest  and  calling  forth  the  very  best 
efforts  of  everyone  taking  part  in  it,  teacher  and  pupils. 
That  was  an  exercise  in  manual  training.  More  specific  ob- 
servations on  the  work  observed  in  the  principal  regular  sub- 
jects are  made  with  some  reluctance,  because  of  the  few  ex- 
ercises that  could  be  observed  in  any  single  subject.  So  far 
as  these  observations  went,  at  least,  these  characterizations 
are  warranted;  others  must  determine  whether  or  not  they 
are  more  widely  applicable. 

Reading  Perfunctory 

The  exercises  in  reading  were  perfunctory,  lacking  in  in- 
terest and  worthy  purpose.  The  good  work  of  the  early 
primary  grades  seemed  to  have  been  lost  in  the  progress 
upward.  There  are  no  examinations  in  this  subject.  Oc- 
cupying the  time  allotted  according  to  schedule  meets  the 
requirements. 

Composition  Very  Poor 

The  work  in  composition  is  scarcely  better.  Although 
this  subject  is  examined,  it  is  treated,  as  has  already  been 
pointed  out,  as  of  quite  subordinate  importance  in  compari- 
son with  technical  grammar.  Although  I  inquired  fre- 
quently, and  on  many  occasions  when  I  was  investigating 
other  subjects,  in  no  single  classroom  was  I  able  to  find  a 
single  piece  of  a  pupil's  work  in  written  composition  in  the 


150  The  Portland  Survey 

possession  of  the  teacher.  No  literary  or  content  value 
seemed  to  be  attached  by  teachers  or  pupils  to  any  of  the 
latter's  written  work.  Such  work  as  teachers  were  able  to 
secure  from  pupils  for  my  inspection  was  presented  in  pads 
of  the  greatest  variety  of  size,  shape,  and  appearance,  but 
uniformly  of  very  poor  paper.  The  appearance  of  these 
pads  as  a  whole,  and  of  the  individual  pieces  of  composition 
which  they  contained,  was  unattractive  in  the  extreme  — 
slovenly  is  not  too  strong  a  term  to  apply  to  most  of  this 
matter. 

There  is  no  little  evidence  that  attention  in  written  com- 
position is  focused  almost  entirely  on  form,  to  the  neglect 
of  content.  The  instruction  observed  and  pupils'  written 
work  strongly  indicated  this.  Indeed,  in  the  published 
course  of  study  for  the  grammar  grades  the  only  direction 
or  suggestion  regarding  written  composition  strongly  im- 
plies that  correctness  of  form  —  which  in  practice  almost  in- 
variably means  correct  spelling,  correct  use  of  capitals  and 
marks  of  punctuation  —  constitutes  the  chief  purpose  of  in- 
struction in  this  subject.  In  the  language  prescription  for 
Sixth  A,  Part  Thirty-one,  occurs  the  following  direction,  to 
which  reference  is  made  in  every  one  of  the  succeeding 
twenty-three  parts  of  the  grammar  course : 

"There  should  be  regular  exercises  in  written  composition.  The  work 
should  for  the  most  part  be  impromptu,  the  writing  being  done  in  the 
schoolroom  under  the  eye  of  the  teacher. 

"The  work  should  be  criticised  by  having  specimens  placed  on  the  black- 
board. These  specimens  should  then  be  made  the  subject  of  class  criticism. 
All  typical  errors  will  be  reached  in  this  way,  and  the  comments  of  the  teacher 
will  be  better  understood  than  her  pencil  marks  upon  the  pupils'  papers." 

Impromptu  work,  followed  by  blackboard  criticism  of 
"  typical  errors,"  does  not  constitute  a  method  of  precedure 
likely  to  result  in  developing  individuality  of  thought  and 
expression,  independence  and  self-confidence  in  giving  ex- 
pression to  one's  own  ideas,  and  pride  in  the  finished  product 
of  one's  efforts.  Predominance  of  attention  to  form,  as  has 
been  abundantly  demonstrated  by  schools  that  have  tried 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction  151 

it  —  and  this  is  almost  everywhere  the  prevailing  method  of 
teaching-  composition,  it  must  be  admitted  —  never  produces 
even  tolerably  satisfactory  formal  results.  This  failure  was 
evident  in  practically  all  the  composition  seen  in  the  Port- 
land schools  —  the  form  was  as  poor  as  the  content.  Com- 
position, that  ought  to  be  and  might  well  be  one  of  the  most 
interesting  and  valuable  studies  of  the  elementary  schools, 
serving  almost  as  no  other  subject  can  to  develop  rich  indi- 
viduality, is  evidently  carried  on  as  a  routine  class  exercise ; 
one  teacher's  practice  of  "  occasionally  looking  at  individual 
papers  when  pupils  get  careless,"  is  probably  not  confined 
to  that  one  teacher.  Composition,  that  may  be  inspiration 
and  opportunity,  is  all  too  evidently  drudgery  for  pupils  and 
teachers. 

Penmanship  Poor  and  Careless 

No  special  exercises  in  penmanship  were  observed,  but 
the  penmanship  in  the  regular  written  exercises,  composi- 
tions, and  examinations  was  carefully  noted.  It  was  pre- 
vailingly poor,  careless,  and  untidy.  Only  an  occasional 
paper  or  notebook,  certainly  not  more  than  one  in  ten,  was 
seen  that  could  be  called  fairly  good  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  penmanship,  and  rarely  one  that  could  be  called  ex- 
cellent. 

Work  in  Geography  Abstract  and  Bookish 

With  the  exception  of  two  exercises  in  the  Arleta  School, 
which  seemed  fairly  real  and  involved  considerable  thought 
on  the  part  of  teachers  and  pupils,  all  the  work  observed  in 
geography  was  abstract  and  bookish  in  the  extreme.  The 
assignments  for  study  and  the  questions,  almost  without 
exception,  called  for  unreasoning  memorization  of  the  state- 
ments of  the  book.  No  connection  was  made  or  suggested 
between  the  book  statements  and  the  pupils'  own  immediate 
observations  of  geographic  phenomena;  not  the  slightest 
stimulus  was  given  to  observe,  to  think  about,  and  to  inter- 
pret the  geographical  phenomena  in  which  Portland  and  its 


1 52  The  Portland  Survey 

vicinity  surpassingly  abound ;  even  an  exercise  in  "  home  " 
geography  was  conducted  entirely  from  the  book,  the  teacher 
reading  therefrom  such  questions  as  these :  "  Where  is  the 
air?  "  "  What  is  moving  air  called?  "  "  What  heats  the 
air  ?  "  "  What  time  of  day  is  warmest  ?  " 

Such  exercises  threw  about  the  whole  subject,  as  they 
could  not  fail  to  do,  an  atmosphere  of  unreality.  It  is  true, 
pupils  answered  the  teacher's  hollow  word-questions  fairly 
well  —  answered  them  with  memorized  hollow  word-state- 
ments. And  it  is  more  than  probable  that  such  exercises 
are  most  effective,  and  most  conserving  of  time  and  effort, 
in  the  preparation  for  passing  the  formal  term  examinations 
in  this  subject,  which,  as  has  already  been  pointed  out,  are 
so  potent  in  shaping  the  work  of  the  schools.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  fair  sample  of  the  type  of  final  term  examinations 
in  geography.  This  examination  was  given  in  January, 
1913,  and  covered  the  work  of  the  Fourth  A,  that  is,  the 
very  beginnings  of  systematic  work  in  geography  —  a 
period  in  the  course  which  should  be  devoted  to  the  first- 
hand observation  and  study  of  geographic  phenomena, 
within  the  comprehension  of  the  pupil,  in  order  that  he 
may  have  some  real  concepts  with  which  to  interpret  geo- 
graphical language  referring  to  phenomena  beyond  the 
range  of  his  experience : 

GEOGRAPHY  EXAMINATION  TEST 
January,  1913 

PART  19 

I.   (a)  What  is  a  continent?    Ocean?    Isthmus? 

(b)  Name  the  continents  and  the  grand  divisions  of  the  two  large  continents. 

II.   (a)  To  what  race  do  you  belong?    The  Chinese? 
(b)  Where  is  the  home  of  each  of  these  races? 

PART  20 

I.  (a)  What  is  a  strait  or  channel?    Write  the  name  of  one  strait  and  tell 
what  it  connects. 

(b)  What  causes  day  and  night? 

(c)  What  is  a  zone?    Name  the  zones  in  order,  beginning  at  the  north. 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction  153 

II.   (a)  Name  the  oceans  surrounding  North  America. 

(b)  What  is  an  island?    Name  four  islands  off  the  coast  of  North  America. 

PART   21 

I.   (a)  Where  is  the  Great  Central  Plain  of  North  America? 

(b)  What  mountains  border  it  on  the  east?    West?    What  bay  and  ocean 
north  of  it?    What  gulf  south? 

II.   (a)  In  what  country  do  we  live? 

(b)  What  ocean  is  east  of  it?   West?   What  country  and  gulf  south?   What 
country  north? 

How  could  a  child  of  nine  or  ten  answer  such  questions  as 
the  above,  except  from  memorized  statements  —  statements 
that  could  be  little  more  than  words  to  him  ? 

History  Instruction  Dry  and  Dull 

The  few  exercises  observed  in  history  bore  very  much  the 
same  general  characteristics  as  those  in  geography.  In  this 
subject,  too,  the  best  exercise  seen  was  one  in  the  Arleta 
School.  Here  several  texts  were  in  use ;  pupils  were  learn- 
ing to  study  the  same  topic,  as  presented  in  different  books ; 
the  teachers'  questions  called  for  some  real  thought,  and 
there  was  evident  a  very  moderate  amount  of  real  interest 
in  the  subject.  The  other  exercises  observed  were  dull  and 
bookish  in  the  extreme ;  there  was  not  the  slightest  evidence 
of  active  and  positive  interest  in  the  subject;  the  one  pur- 
pose seemed  to  be  to  acquire,  by  sheer  force  of  memory, 
the  statements  of  the  assigned  text  —  a  text  that  could  be 
most  advantageously  displaced  by  any  one  of  a  half-dozen 
texts  that  might  be  named. 

Arithmetic  and  Technical  Grammar  Better  Taught  than 
Other  Subjects 

Arithmetic  and  technical  grammar  are  evidently  consid- 
ered and  treated  by  the  central  authorities  as  the  backbone . 
of  the  elementary  school  course;  naturally  these  subjects 


154  The  Portland  Survey 

receive  corresponding  attention  from  the  teachers.  Assum- 
ing that  these  subjects  as  prescribed  must  be  taught  —  we 
have  already  criticised  such  prescriptions  —  the  teaching  of 
them  seemed,  on  the  whole,  to  be  the  best  teaching  ob- 
served. It  is  true  that  much  of  the  technical  grammar  had 
little  meaning  for  most  of  the  children,  and  could  not  be 
expected  to  inspire  any  real  interest  in  itself,  but  several 
teachers  —  indeed  most  of  those  observed  in  this  subject  — 
were  making  commendable  and,  in  a  few  cases,  quite  skil- 
ful efforts  to  bring  the  subject  within  their  pupils'  under- 
standing. The  arithmetic,  too,  was  on  problems  few  would 
ever  have  to  solve,  while  quick,  simple  mental  calculation, 
where  tested,  was  quite  poor. 

Criticisms  from  a  Practical  Standpoint 

The  foregoing  criticisms  of  the  work  of  the  grammar 
grades  as  observed  in  the  several  "  regular  "  subjects  are 
not  made  from  the  standpoint  of  a  highly  desirable  but  un- 
attainable ideal,  but  are  made  entirely  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  present  actual  accomplishment  of  the  best  public 
schools.  From  this  practical  standpoint,  our  statement  of 
the  shortcomings  of  the  work  observed  in  the  Portland 
schools  —  severe  as  it  may  possibly  appear  to  some  —  is  con- 
servative, and  more  than  justified  by  the  facts. 

DEADENING   EFFECT  OF   THE   SYSTEM 

The  System  Relieves  Teachers  of  Educational  Responsibility 

The  influence  of  the  system,  rigidly  centralized,  mechani- 
cal and  mechanically  administered,  as  already  shown  in 
some  detail,  is  quite  manifest  in  all  the  classroom  work  of 
the  grammar  grades  —  in  the  attitude  of  principals,  teachers, 
and  pupils.  In  these  grades  everywhere  there  is  a  notice- 
able absence  of  any  feeling  of  educational  responsibility. 
Teachers  are  convinced  that  many  of  their  efforts  are  futile, 
that  much  that  they  are  attempting  is  of  little  or  no  value 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction          155 

to  their  pupils ;  but  what  can  they  do  about  it  ?  They  have 
no  responsibility,  no  right,  to  depart  from  the  rigidly  uni- 
form prescriptions  of  the  course  of  study,  reinforced  by  in- 
spection from  the  central  office  and  by  the  important  term 
examinations.  Indeed,  there  is  probably  nothing  tangible 
or  definite  to  hinder  a  teacher  from  doing  something  more 
than  the  prescribed  work,  and  possibly  doing  that  something 
more  in  an  original  way;  but  no  encouragement  from  the 
higher  authorities  could  anywhere  be  found  for  attempting 
anything  beyond  the  strict  requirements.  In  fact,  consider- 
ing the  extent  and  nature  of  these  requirements,  their  ful- 
fillment according  to  the  letter  of  the  law  is  probably  a  suffi- 
cient tax  on  most  teachers  and  pupils. 

Work  of  Teachers  and  Pupils  in  the  Grammar  Grades 
Passive,  Routine,  Clerical 

In  complete  harmony  with  this  lack  of  all  feeling  of  active 
and  intelligent  responsibility  for  the  best  education  of  the 
children  placed  in  their  charge,  was,  as  would  be  almost 
inevitable,  an  equally  complete  lack  of  originality,  even  in 
the  details  of  classroom  procedure.  Passive,  routine,  cleri- 
cal, are  the  terms  that  most  fittingly  describe  the  attitude 
of  principals  and  grammar  grade  teachers  toward  their 
work.  And  the  attitude  of  the  pupils  is  inevitably  the  same. 
Except  in  one  exercise,  in  all  my  visits  to  grammar  grade 
rooms,  I  heard  not  a  single  question  asked  by  a  pupil,  not 
a  single  remark  or  comment  made,  to  indicate  that  the  pupil 
had  any  really  vital  interest  in  the  subject-matter  of  the  ex- 
ercise ;  on  not  a  single  occasion  was  there  interested  disagree- 
ment and  active  discussion  over  any  point  to  show  that  the 
pupils  were  thinking  independently.  The  single  exception 
to  which  reference  is  made  occurred  in  an  exercise  in  physi- 
ology, in  which  several  alert  boys  cited  numerous  cases 
within  their  knowledge  —  and  with  no  little  degree  of  suc- 
cess —  to  refute  the  teacher's  contention,  unsupported  by 
facts,  that  the  use  of  tobacco  shortens  the  life  of  the  user. 


156  The  Portland  Survey 

The  attitude  of  the  teacher  as  she  teaches,  of  the  pupil  as 
he  learns,  is  unquestionably  of  far  more  educational  im- 
portance than  is  the  subject  with  which  they  deal ;  when 
passive,  neither  teachers  nor  pupils  are  putting  themselves 
into  their  work.  Any  system  that  compels,  encourages,  or 
permits  passivity  to  become  the  prevailing  attitude  in  the 
schools,  at  once  deprives  itself  of  the  best  powers  of  teachers 
and  limits  the  education  of  pupils  to  the  training  of  their 
lower  faculties.  That  the  Portland  system  is  chiefly  re- 
sponsible for  this  condition  in  the  grammar  schools,  there 
can  be  no  serious  doubt. 

Of  course,  Portland  grammar  teachers  are  not  univer- 
sally passive  by  nature,  although  the  system  under  which 
they  work  unquestionably  tends  to  select  and  retain  teach- 
ers of  this  type,  rather  than  those  of  professional  originality 
and  natural  aggressiveness.  In  private  conversation,  the 
majority  of  a  considerable  number  of  teachers  with  whom 
school  interests  were  discussed  at  some  length,  gave  evi- 
dence of  alertness,  independence,  and  originality,  of  which 
there  was  little  or  no  trace  in  their  classroom  exercises. 


Deadening  Effect  of  the  System  on  Principals 

'VH 

The  system  bears  even  more  heavily  upon  principals  than 
upon  teachers.  It  virtually  permits  little,  it  fails  utterly  to 
encourage,  much  less  does  it  require,  the  assumption  of  real 
educational  responsibility,  the  exercise  of  professional  initi- 
ative and  originality  by  principals.  Both  in  letter  and  in 
spirit  the  functions  imposed  upon  principals  by  the  system 
are  routine  and  clerical.  In  the  published  Rules  and  Regu- 
lations of  the  school  district,  eight  pages  are  devoted  to  de- 
fining the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  principals.  The  very 
first  duty  here  imposed  upon  principals,  and  the  spirit  in 
which  it  is  imposed,  as  indicated  by  the  penalty  for  failure 
to  comply,  is  typical  of  the  character  of  their  prescribed 
duties  and  responsibilities  as  a  whole.  That  first  duty  and 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction  157 

the  penalty  for  its  neglect  read  (Rides,  pages  52-53)  as  fol- 
lows: 

"Principals  shall  personally  see  that  at  8.30  A.  M.  the  school  buildings  are 
open  and  the  assistants  have  registered  their  attendance. 

"Any  principal  who  fails  to  comply  with  the  first  requirement  of  this  rule 
shall  be  fined  two  dollars  for  each  such  failure." 

Other  duties  assigned  are  to  report  neglect  of  janitors, 
provide  for  supervision  of  school  premises,  report  pupil  at- 
tendance to  Superintendent  of  Schools,  hold  fire  drills  as 
prescribed  by  the  board,  report  to  the  School  Clerk  each 
month  the  quantity  and  condition  of  school  property,  enter 
any  alteration  and  amendment  in  the  rules  in  each  copy  of 
the  rules  in  the  principal's  building,  see  that  the  flag  is 
raised  over  the  building  and  removed  as  prescribed,  that 
assembly  halls  are  used  only  as  directed  by  the  board,  and 
to  be  at  the  building  in  cold  weather  one  hour  before  pupils. 

The  only  duties  imposed  upon  principals  which  obviously 
pertain  directly  to  the  instruction  in  their  schools,  are  the 
two  following: 

"All  supervising  principals  are  required  to  teach  at  least  one  period  each 
day."  (Rules,  page  60.) 

"All  principals  shall  make  themselves  familiar  with  the  work  of  the  grades 
under  their  supervision,  and  shall  cooperate  with  the  city  superintendent  to  see 
that  such  work  is  faithfully  executed."  (Rules,  page  53.) 

Teaching  a  certain  class  one  period  per  day  —  according 
to  the  hard  and  fast  prescriptions  of  the  course  of  study  — 
and  cooperating  with  the  city  superintendent  to  see  that  other 
teachers  execute  their  work  as  prescribed,  constitute  the  full 
extent  of  educational  responsibility  imposed  upon  elemen- 
tary school  principals ;  and,  with  two  exceptions,  none  of  the 
principals  whose  schools  were  studied  were  actually  ex- 
ceeding the  letter  of  this  clerical  responsibility  imposed  upon 
them. 

One  other  duty  imposed  by  the  Rules  and  Regulations 
might,  under  radically  different  conditions,  be  important 
educationally.  The  duty  referred  to  is  defined  as  follows: 


158  The  Portland  Survey 

"It  shall  be  the  duty  of  principals  to  hold,  each  week,  at  least  one  general 
meeting  of  all  teachers  in  their  respective  buildings,  for  the  purpose  of  consulta- 
tion on  subjects  pertaining  to  school  work."  (Rides,  page  53.) 

Obedience  to  this  requirement  is  insured  by  a  fine  of  one 
dollar  for  every  failure ! 

All  principals  with  whom  conference  was  held  were  com- 
plying with  the  letter  of  this  rule;  with  one  exception,  or 
possibly  two,  their  compliance  was  merely  formal.  At  all 
events,  with  the  one  or  possibly  two  exceptions  noted,  no 
principal  was  holding  meetings  of  any  educational  signifi- 
cance. The  time  of  these  meetings,  which  are  usually  brief, 
is  devoted  to  notices,  rules,  and  directions,  and  matter  of  a 
similar  routine  character,  most  of  which  might  be  handled 
much  more  effectively  with  the  use  of  a  mimeograph. 

One  principal,  who  has  clear  and  sound  ideas  on  the  real 
functions  of  a  supervising  principal,  and  who  is  fully  con- 
scious that  he  is  not  fulfilling  those  functions  under  the 
Portland  system,  related  that  years  ago  he  tried  to  hold  pro- 
fessional meetings  with  his  teachers,  but  gave  it  up  —  be- 
cause his  teachers  were  not  fitted  for  such  work !  The  best 
of  them,  those  who  were  capable  of  taking  leading  parts  in 
such  meetings,  were  reluctant  to  express  themselves,  lest 
their  advanced  views  should  be  reported  throughout  the 
city  and  get  them  into  trouble.  They  feared  to  advocate 
anything  out  of  the  routine,  for  that  would  mean  more 
work,  and  more  work  —  with  its  attendant  accomplish- 
ment—  in  one  part  of  the  system,  would  threaten  other 
parts  of  the  system  with  a  like  affliction ! 

There  is  one,  and  only  one,  other  duty,  not  yet  referred 
to,  which  is  imposed  on  elementary  school  principals.  That 
duty  is  prescribed  only  by  implication  in  the  following  rule, 
which  defines  the  penalty  for  failure: 

"Any  principal,  who  for  any  cause  whatever,  fails  to  attend  any  meeting 
called  by  the  city  superintendent  of  schools  for  consultation,  shall  forfeit  the 
sum  of  one  dollar  for  every  such  failure;  and  for  tardiness  at  any  such  meeting 
one-half  dollar  shall  be  forfeited."  (Rules,  page  59.) 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction          159 

The  influence  of  the  system,  replete  with  prescriptions  of 
mechanical,  routine,  and  clerical  service,  but  neither  requir- 
ing nor  encouraging  the  exercise  of  any  professional  initia- 
tive or  judgment,  is  plainly  manifest  in  the  character  and 
attitude  of  the  principals  that  the  system  selects  and  retains. 
Extended  conferences  with  the  principals  of  all  the  elemen- 
tary schools  visited  revealed  among  this  number  three  quite 
distinctly  marked  types,  so  far  as  their  present  attitude 
toward  professional  work  is  concerned.  There  are,  first, 
those  who  are  professionally  dead,  who  could  be  made  to 
disclose  no  evidence  of  ever  having  been  professionally  alive, 
and  who,  of  course,  do  not  know  that  they  are  dead ;  second, 
there  are  those  who  were  once  professionally  alive,  who 
cherish  rather  fond  memories  of  those  golden  days,  realize 
that  they  are  now  dead,  but  are  not  sufficiently  dissatisfied 
with  their  present  inertia,  or  lack  the  strength,  to  resume 
a  self-respecting,  active  professional  existence;  and  finally 
there  are  those  who  are  professionally  very  much  alive,  are, 
of  course,  conscious  of  their  life,  and  quite  as  keenly  con- 
scious of  the  professional  death  all  about  them.  Only  one 
of  the  principals  interviewed  seems  to  belong  wholly  to  this 
last  type. 

Work  in  Primary  Rooms  Presents  Marked  Contrast  to 
That  in  Grammar  Rooms 

What  has  been  said  regarding  the  prevailing  attitude  of 
grammar  grade  teachers  does  not  apply  to  the  score  of  pri- 
mary teachers  whose  work  was  inspected  at  some  length. 
The  work  of  these  teachers,  as  a  whole,  was  characterized 
by  activity,  originality,  independence,  initiative,  interest,  and 
enthusiasm.  Their  pupils  responded  in  kind.  Why  the 
marked  contrast  in  this  most  important  respect  between  the 
primary  and  the  grammar  grades?  While,  naturally,  the 
answer  to  this  question  is  not  susceptible  of  mathematical 
demonstration,  it  seems  more  than  probable  that  the  contrast 
is  due  largely  to  the  inequality  with  which  the  system  bears 


160  The  Portland  Survey 

upon  the  primary  and  grammar  departments.  Much  edu- 
cational responsibility  is  placed  upon  primary  teachers;  the 
primary  work  is  much  less  definitely  prescribed  than  is  that 
of  the  grammar  grades;  and,  most  important  of  all,  there 
are  no  examinations  imposed  from  without  to  determine  the 
fitness  of  pupils  to  advance.  Primary  teachers  are  evidently 
expected  to  use  intelligent  judgment  and  to  exercise  no 
little  independence,  both  in  respect  to  subject-matter  and 
method. 

OTHER   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL    NEEDS 

The  Dearth  of  Suitable  Educational  Materials 

Without  going  into  much  detail,  record  must  here  be  made 
of  the  dearth  of  suitable  educational  material  throughout  all 
the  schools  visited.  Not  a  single  one  of  the  hundred  elemen- 
tary schoolrooms  visited  was  even  fairly  well  supplied  with 
what  must  be  regarded  as  the  barest  essentials  necessary  for 
good  work.  In  most  subjects  there  is  lack  of  a  sufficient 
number  of  suitable  regular  texts;  and  there  is  a  lamentable 
lack  of  supplementary  books,  geographical,  historical,  and 
literary  readers. 

This  lack  of  supplementary  readers  is  perhaps  most  keenly 
felt  in  the  lower  primary  grades.  Classes  are  limited  to  the 
two  regular  texts  and  such  miscellaneous  single  books  as 
can  be  secured  by  giving  pay  entertainments  or  by  borrow- 
ing from  the  public  library.  There  should  be  available  for 
every  primary  room  at  least  ten  sets  of  suitable  supplemen- 
tary readers.  By  a  system  of  exchange  the  same  sets  might 
be  made  to  do  service  in  several  classrooms  within  the  year. 
Every  primary  class  in  reading  that  was  inspected  was  actu- 
ally suffering  for  more  books ;  the  pupils  had  learned  how  to 
read;  their  great  need  was  for  reading  material,  and  an 
abundance  of  it.  The  same  lack  extends  up  into  the  other 
grades. 

Apparatus,  pictures,  maps,  so  necessary  in  the  most  ef- 
fective teaching  of  geography,  history,  and  literature,  are 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction  161 

conspicuous  by  their  absence.  Suitable  and  uniform  paper 
for  written  work  seems  to  be  uniformly  lacking.  Some  is 
furnished,  but  the  quantity  is  far  too  small.  In  the  primary 
grades,  slates,  which  have  been  long  since  abolished  beyond 
recall  in  most  educationally  progressive  cities,  are  here  still 
largely  taking  the  place  of  paper. 

It  can  hardly  be  expected  that  sufficient  and  suitable  books 
and  other  equally  necessary  educational  material  will  be  sup- 
plied to  every  schoolroom  until  the  school  department  as- 
sumes the  expense  and  the  responsibility  of  these  indispen- 
sable aids  to  schoolroom  work.  Several  whole  states  and 
many  cities  of  the  East  have  found,  by  nearly  a  generation 
of  experience,  that  it  is  not  only  educationally  advantageous, 
but  economical  as  well,  for  the  city  or  school  district  to  fur- 
nish everything  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  schools. 
In  the  interest  both  of  educational  efficiency  and  of  economy, 
this  course  is  recommended  for  Portland. 

If  it  should  seem  impracticable  to  meet  at  once  the  initial 
cost  of  supplying  all  necessary  books  and  material  in  suffi- 
cient quantity,  the  practice  might  well  be  introduced  grad- 
ually. For  example,  a  good  beginning  might  be  made  by 
supplying,  in  the  elementary  schools,  everything  except  the 
regular  textbooks;  this  would  probably  cost  about  $2  per 
pupil  per  year,  of  which  about  one  half  would  be  necessary 
for  stationery  and  other  quickly  consumed  supplies,  while 
the  other  half  should  be  expended  on  supplementary  books 
and  other  relatively  permanent  material.  By  spending  this 
amount  for  three  or  four  years,  a  good  supply  of  supple- 
mentary books  and  other  relatively  permanent  materials 
would  be  accumulated;  then,  without  much  increasing  the 
annual  costs,  the  district  might  undertake  to  supply  the 
regular  texts  in  the  elementary  schools.  All  books  would, 
of  course,  be  loaned,  not  given,  to  pupils.  When  the  system 
of  furnishing  books  and  supplies  by  the  district  had  been 
once  completely  established,  it  could  be  well  maintained  at 
an  annual  expenditure  not  exceeding  $2  per  pupil  in  the 
elementary  schools. 


1 62  The  Portland  Survey 

There  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  this  comparatively 
small  addition  to  the  present  cost  per  pupil,  amounting  to 
an  increase  of  less  than  five  per  cent,  over  the  present  rate, 
would  more  than  justify  itself  in  the  increase  of  efficiency 
throughout  the  elementary  schools.  It  should  also  be 
pointed  out  that,  to  a  considerable  extent,  this  increase 
would  be  apparent,  rather  than  real.  Such  books  and  ma- 
terials as  are  now  used  are  paid  for  by  the  people  of  the 
school  district  and  by  those  who  have  children  in  the  schools ; 
when  the  books  and  materials  are  furnished  by  the  school 
district,  they  are  paid  for  by  the  people  of  the  district 
through  taxation.  Purchasing  in  large  quantities,  the  school 
board  can  buy  books  at  about  twenty  per  cent,  less,  and 
other  supplies  at  a  much  larger  reduction,  than  can  indi- 
viduals purchasing  in  very  small  quantities.  Hence  the 
actual  cost  of  books  and  supplies  that  must  be  met  from  re- 
sources of  people  of  the  district,  when  these  are  purchased 
in  quantity  by  the  district,  will  not  be,  on  the  average,  more 
than  two  thirds  to  three  fourths  as  much  as  when  purchased 
by  individuals,  as  at  present. 

Classes  in  the  Elementary  Schools  of  Commendable  Size 

The  school  authorities  deserve  much  credit  for  keeping 
up  with  the  very  rapid  increase  in  school  population,  which 
has  been  taking  place  during  the  last  decade,  with  an  equally 
rapid  extension  of  the  school  plant  and  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  classes,  with  the  result  that  all  pupils  are  afforded  a 
full  day's  schooling,  and  that  in  classes  of  very  favorable 
size,  in  comparison  with  those  of  most  large,  rapidly  grow- 
ing cities.  While  many  such  cities  are  struggling  to  give 
thousands  of  pupils  a  full  school  day  and  to  reduce  the  size 
of  elementary  classes  to  forty-four,  forty-two,  or  forty  pu- 
pils, as  a  practical  ideal  for  the  immediate  future,  Portland 
schools  are  already  enjoying  the  great  advantage  of  an  aver- 
age class  membership  of  scarcely  thirty-six.  While  an  aver- 
age membership  of  thirty  is  preferable  to  one  of  thirty-six, 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction  163 

the  authorities  will  do  well,  in  the  next  few  years,  not  to 
let  classes  increase  over  the  present  size. 

Discipline 

In  every  elementary  school  building  and  classroom  visited 
the  pupils  seemed  to  be  under  the  complete  control  of  prin- 
cipals and  teachers.  Not  a  single  case  of  disobedience  or  of 
disturbing  conduct  was  observed;  on  the  contrary,  the 
speech  and  attitude  of  pupils  was  universally  respectful  and 
responsive  to  the  desires  of  teachers  and  principals. 

Provision  for  Defectives 

The  only  provision  made  for  elementary  instruction  in  the 
Portland  schools  not  already  referred  to  in  the  preced- 
ing pages  of  this  section  is  the  wholly  inadequate  provision 
for  defectives.  This  provision  of  the  system  is  discussed 
elsewhere,  in  Chapter  XIV. 


THE   CURRICULA   OF   THE  SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

Extent  and  Character  of  Provisions  for  Secondary 
Education 

The  rapidly  growing  demand  for  secondary  education, 
quite  general  throughout  the  country,  is  manifested  in  Port- 
land by  the  remarkable  increase  in  secondary  school  enroll- 
ment during  the  last  four  years.  Within  this  short  period 
the  number  of  secondary  pupils  enrolled  has  increased  from 
1,793  to  3,544,  an  increase  of  92  per  cent. ;  during  the  same 
period  the  increase  in  elementary  school  pupils  was  from 
20,420  to  26,973,  a  growth  of  only  32  per  cent. 

Causes  of  Increase  in  Secondary  School  Enrollment 

The  principal  causes  of  this  extraordinary  growth  of  sec- 
ondary pupils  appear  to  be  the  three  following:  first,  the 


164  The  Portland  Survey 

growing  disposition  to  prolong  education  beyond  the  ele- 
mentary grades ;  second,  the  increased  attractiveness  and  the 
greater  accessibility  of  regular  high  school  opportunities 
that  have  been  brought  about  within  five  years  by  the  build- 
ing of  the  Jefferson  and  new  Lincoln  schools ;  and,  finally, 
the  provision  of  radically  different  types  of  secondary  edu- 
cation in  the  School  of  Trades,  and  the  extension  of  the 
more  immediately  practical  courses  —  the  commercial,  man- 
ual training,  domestic  science,  and  domestic  art  courses  — 
in  the  high  schools.  Just  how  much  of  the  increase  in  sec- 
ondary pupils  in  excess  of  the  general  increase  in  school 
population  is  due  to  each  of  these  causes,  it  is  obviously  im- 
possible to  determine  accurately.  That  the  new  and  en- 
larged trade  and  practical  courses  are  chiefly  responsible 
for  more  than  one  half  the  increase  of  nearly  1,200  pupils  in 
excess  of  the  average  increase  in  the  total  school  enroll- 
ment would  seem  to  be  a  conservative  estimate,  when  we 
consider  that  during  the  period  in  question  the  enrollment 
in  the  School  of  Trades  has  grown  from  nothing  to  380,  in 
the  commercial  courses  from  99  to  431,  in  the  domestic 
science  and  art  courses  from  1 10  to  234,  and  in  the  manual 
training  from  58  to  137.  This  growth  and  the  apparent 
causes  of  it  are  most  significant,  and  suggest  still  further 
extensions  and  improvements  in  the  secondary  program,  as 
will  be  pointed  out  more  fully  in  Chapter  X. 

Present  Provision  for  Secondary  Education 

At  the  present  time  the  provisions  for  secondary  educa- 
tion in  the  district  are  found  in  three  high  schools  and  in 
the  School  of  Trades.  Pupils,  both  boys  and  girls,  are  ad- 
mitted to  all  these  schools,  and  on  the  same  scholastic  con- 
ditions, viz.,  completion  of  the  elementary  course  of  study 
or  its  equivalent. 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction  165 

Character  of  Instruction 

The  time  that  could  be  devoted  to  a  study  of  the  actual 
classroom  work  in  the  high  schools,  and  its  results,  was  too 
limited  to  warrant  any  confident  generalizations  concerning 
its  character  as  a  whole.  Five  exercises  by  different  teach- 
ers were  witnessed  in  English,  four  in  commercial  subjects, 
two  in  history,  and  one  each  in  psychology,  physiography, 
drawing,  and  German;  these  exercises  were  about  evenly 
divided  in  number  among  the  three  schools.  From  the  con- 
duct of  these  exercises,  and  from  private  conversations  with 
the  teachers  conducting  them,  we  feel  fully  justified  in  say- 
ing that  in  the  Portland  high  schools  there  are  teachers 
equal  to  the  best  that  we  have  ever  seen  in  any  secondary 
school  —  and  there  are  also  teachers  as  poor  as  the  poorest 
that  we  have  ever  seen  anywhere.  Examples  of  such  ex- 
tremes of  surpassing  excellence  and  of  lamentable  ineffi- 
ciency we  have  never  before  met  with  in  one  and  the  same 
school ;  and  in  some  cases  the  representatives  of  inefficiency 
were  drawing  considerably  larger  salaries  than  were  the 
representatives  of  excellence.  The  conditions  as  they  re- 
late to  salaries  have  been  considered  at  some  length  in 
Chapter  V. 

A  careful  study  of  the  curriculum  of  the  high  schools,  and 
long  conferences  with  the  three  principals  and  with  eight 
department  heads,  regarding  its  character,  administration, 
and  adaptation  to  the  needs  of  the  youth  and  the  commu- 
nity, form  the  chief  immediate  basis  of  the  characterizations 
and  criticisms  that  follow. 

High  School  Courses  of  Study 

Table  XV,  on  page  166,  shows  in  a  single  view  the  scope, 
character,  and  arrangement  of  the  complete  high  school 
curriculum  for  Portland.  As  outlined  in  the  published  high 
school  courses  of  study,  there  are  ten  distinct  "  courses  "  of 
study,  among  which  a  pupil  beginning  high  school  work 


166 


The  Portland  Survey 


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Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction  167 

must  choose,  as  follows:  English,  Latin,  German,  scien- 
tific, college  preparatory,  teaching,  dressmaking,  domestic 
science,  manual  training,  and  commercial.  The  chief  con- 
stituents of  every  one  of  these  courses,  with  the  possible  ex- 
ception of  the  commercial,  are  found  in  the  six  subjects 
first  indicated  on  the  chart,  that  is,  English,  history,  science, 
mathematics,  Latin,  and  German.  Indeed,  the  five  courses 
first  named  above  are  made  up  entirely  of  these  six  sub- 
jects, taken  in  varying  proportions.  The  five  remaining 
courses  are  made  up  of  varying  proportions  of  these  same 
six  subjects,  with  the  addition  to  each  course  of  the  practi- 
cal subject,  or  subjects,  as  indicated  on  the  chart,  which 
gives  the  name  to  the  course. 


Principals  and  Teachers  Employed  in  Teaching  Subjects, 
Not  in  Educating  Youth 

While  the  courses  of  studies  for  the  high  schools  are 
more  varied,  and  while  they  have  undergone  considerably 
more  change  and  growth  in  the  last  half-dozen  years  than 
has  the  elementary  course,  the  same  characteristics  that 
were  pointed  out  and  criticised  at  length  in  the  elementary 
course  are  marked  also  in  the  high  school  courses.  First  to 
be  noted  is  the  rigid  maintenance  of  the  formal  integrity  of 
the  prescribed  courses.  Instead  of  a  living  curriculum, 
easily  adaptable  by  principals,  heads  of  departments,  and 
teachers,  to  the  varying  and  changing  needs  of  the  youth 
and  the  community,  there  is  just  the  reverse  —  a  fixed  cur- 
riculum, varied  even  in  comparatively  unimportant  details 
with  difficulty  and  the  loss  of  much  time;  pupils  and  com- 
munity must  make  what  they  can  of  what  is  provided.  The 
high  schools  are  maintained,  and  principals  and  teachers  are 
employed,  to  give  instruction  in  the  prescribed  subjects  to 
those  pupils  who  meet  the  prescribed  conditions ;  the  system 
does  not  encourage  or  even  permit,  to  any  considerable  ex- 
tent, the  concentration  of  the  thought  and  effort  of  prin- 


1 68  The  Portland  Survey 

cipals  and  teachers  primarily  on  the  best  education  of  the 
high  school  youth  of  the  city. 

Of  course,  everyone  concerned  hopes  —  and  doubtless  some 
believe  —  that  the  best  educational  results  are  achieved  under 
these  conditions.  So  one  may  hope  and  perhaps  believe  that 
the  best  way  to  make  a  deaf  child  like  a  normal  child  is  to 
give  him  for  several  years  the  same  instruction  in  technical 
grammar  to  which  the  normal  child  is  subjected.  The  fun- 
damental fault  with  this  attitude,  wherever  it  manifests  it- 
self in  the  educational  field,  is  that  it  fails  to  study  and  to 
attempt  to  meet  definitely  the  actual,  concrete  problems  of 
education  as  they  present  themselves ;  it  shirks  the  responsi- 
bility, perhaps  because  of  the  very  real  danger  of  failure, 
of  undertaking  the  really  difficult  thing  in  teaching  —  the 
most  efficient  education  of  an  actual  living  individual.  It 
involves  comparatively  little  responsibility  to  teach  a  sub- 
ject well  to  those  who  are  capable  of  learning  it,  and  many 
teachers  reach  a  high  degree  of  excellence  in  this;  it  is 
quite  another  matter  to  teach  a  child  or  youth  well.  How 
many  teachers  are  capable  of  this  will  not  be  revealed  until 
school  authorities  permit,  encourage,  and  require  this  as 
the  obviously  primary  function  of  all  true  teachers. 

An  Official  Step  in  the  Wrong  Direction 

That  teachers  may  teach  youth,  rather  than  subjects,  it  is 
necessary  that  they  be  allowed  time  to  study  sympathetically 
the  youth  they  are  to  teach,  to  know  them,  to  appreciate  their 
capacities  and  interests,  their  strength  and  their  weakness. 
A  teacher  who  is  occupied  with  classroom  instruction  every 
period  in  the  day,  every  day  in  the  week,  meeting  each  pe- 
riod in  the  day  a  new  group  of  faces,  under  the  constraint  of 
teaching  each  group  a  given  portion  of  the  prescribed  cur- 
riculum, has  far  too  little  opportunity,  and  still  less  incentive, 
to  know  his  pupils  individually,  as  he  must  know  them  if  he 
is  really  to  educate  each  one  intelligently  and  effectively. 
The  recent  order  of  the  school  authorities  abolishing,  for 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction  169 

nearly  all  high  school  teachers,  the  all-too-few  periods  that 
had  previously  been  free  from  set  recitations,  was  a  step  in 
the  wrong  direction.  There  is  no  question  but  that  the 
teachers  in  the  high  schools  are  today  required  to  teach  al- 
together too  many  periods  per  week. 

Uniformity  of  Curriculum  for  All  High  Schools 

That  the  maintenance  of  the  uniformity  of  the  curricu- 
lum, rather  than  the  serving  of  the  varying  individual 
needs  of  youth,  is  made  to  loom  large  on  the  teacher's  hori- 
zon, is  shown  in  several  ways,  among  which  the  following 
are  of  prime  importance.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  the 
same  identical  curriculum  —  outlined  not  quite  so  minutely, 
but  with  the  same  kind  of  formal  and  mechanical  detail 
that  characterizes  the  elementary  curriculum  —  for  all  three 
high  schools ;  the  only  officially  sanctioned  variation  is  found 
in  the  Washington  and  Lincoln  schools,  no  manual  training 
being  given  in  the  latter,  and  no  commercial  subjects  in  the 
former.  Not  only  is  there  one  single  outline  of  subjects  to 
be  taught  in  all  the  schools,  but  no  deviation  from  this  out- 
line may  be  made  in  one  school,  to  meet  temporary  needs, 
unless  the  same  deviation  is  agreed  upon  by  principals  and 
interested  heads  of  departments  for  all  the  schools  and 
formally  approved  by  the  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of 
School  Directors.  Such,  for  example,  is  the  only  process  of 
making  so  small  a  variation  from  the  prescribed  uniformity 
as  the  substitution  for  one  of  the  least  of  the  classics  that 
must  be  read  at  a  given  point  in  the  course  in  literature  of 
another  classic,  equally  good  from  the  literary  standpoint, 
and  much  better  adapted  to  meet  conditions  that  obtain  at  a 
given  time  in  one  school,  but  which  may  not  obtain  at  all 
in  the  other  schools. 

Of  course,  it  may  be  maintained  with  some  truth  that  the 
sum  total  of  the  characteristics  and  needs  of  the  thousand 
pupils  in  one  school  is  approximately  the  same  as  the  sum 
total  of  the  characteristics  and  needs  of  the  thousand  pupils 


170  The  Portland  Survey 

in  either  of  the  other  schools ;  hence,  the  conclusion  may  be 
drawn  that  the  curriculum  adequate  to  meet  the  needs  in 
one  school  must  be  adequate  to  meet  the  needs  in  the  other 
schools.  Unfortunately,  the  trouble  with  the  curriculum 
that  grows  out  of  such  reasoning,  and  that  is  maintained  in 
the  spirit  of  such  reasoning,  is  that  in  practice  it  never  ade- 
quately serves  the  actual  needs  of  pupils  in  any  school.  Such 
a  curriculum  is  always  rigid,  dead,  demanding  the  service 
of  pupils  and  teachers;  while  an  adequate  curriculum  must 
be  living,  adaptable,  easily  varied  in  the  service  of  teachers 
and  pupils,  that  their  work  together  may  result  in  efficient 
education. 

Uniformity  of  Curriculum  a  Barrier  to  Progress 

The  concentration  of  effort  on  the  maintenance  of  a 
uniform  curriculum  for  all  schools  is  a  most  effective  bar- 
rier to  progress  in  the  adaptation  of  the  curriculum  to  local 
needs;  under  these  conditions  the  least  progressive  school, 
the  least  progressive  principal  or  department  head,  is  the 
most  influential  in  determining  what  all  the  schools  shall  do. 
The  progress  of  all  is  determined  by  the  rate  of  the  slowest. 
More  than  one  illustration  of  this,  touching  some  of  the 
largest  and  most  important  courses,  was  discovered  in  the 
Portland  high  schools.  On  the  other  hand,  let  there  be 
placed  upon  every  principal,  every  department  head,  and 
every  teacher,  large  responsibility  for  meeting  progressively 
and  as  fully  as  possible  the  concrete  and  ever-changing  prob- 
lems that  present  themselves  —  not  to  others  in  other  schools, 
but  to  them  in  their  schools  —  and  just  the  opposite  results 
will  inevitably  follow;  the  most  wisely  progressive  school, 
principal,  department  head,  and  teacher,  will  advance  rap- 
idly, and  the  slowest  will  be  stimulated  to  follow. 

Uniformity  and  Isolation  of  Subjects 

In  full  harmony  with  the  uniformity  of  the  curriculum 
as  a  whole,  perhaps  almost  a  necessary  part  of  such  uni- 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction          171 

formity,  is  not  only  the  uniformity  but  the  isolation  of  every 
distinct  subject  of  which  the  whole  curriculum  is  composed. 
For  example,  there  is  a  single,  minutely  defined  course  in 
English  language  and  literature,  which  is  identical,  not  only 
for  all  schools,  but  for  all  pupils.  It  matters  not  in  what 
school  a  pupil  is,  or  what  course  the  pupil  is  pursuing  — 
whether  the  college  preparatory,  the  manual  training,  the 
domestic  science,  the  commercial,  or  the  teaching  course  — 
when  that  pupil  studies  English,  he  is  given  exactly  the 
same  instruction,  both  in  subject-matter  and  method,  as 
every  other  pupil  who  studies  English.  And  the  same  thing 
is  true  of  every  other  subject.  Is  not  English,  English; 
chemistry,  chemistry;  history,  history;  and  mathematics, 
mathematics,  no  matter  who  studies  these  subjects,  or  for 
what  purpose?  Indeed,  such  seems  to  be  the  only  assump- 
tion capable  of  justifying  the  uniformity  and  isolation  of 
subjects  that  obtain  in  the  Portland  high  schools. 


Pupils'  "  Courses  "  Lack  Unity  and  Definiteness  of  Purpose 

One  of  the  unfortunate  results  of  this  uniformity  and 
isolation  of  subjects  is  that  any  "  course,"  as  the  domestic 
science,  commercial,  or  teaching  course,  that  a  pupil  pursues, 
lacks  unity  of  purpose;  it  is  merely  made  up  of  a  certain 
number  of  subjects  uncorrelated  with  each  other  and  un- 
adapted  to  any  specific  purpose  that  the  pupil's  "course  " 
ought  to  serve.  This  condition  is  most  obvious  in  the 
"  practical "  courses,  which  are  rightly  supposed  to  serve 
specific  ends  in  the  very  near  future.  For  illustration,  it  is 
a  misnomer,  if  nothing  more,  to  call  a  course  a  "  teaching  " 
course,  seven  eighths  of  which  consists  of  the  same  subjects, 
handled  in  the  same  way,  that  go  to  make  up  the  major  por- 
tion of  all  the  nine  other  high  school  "  courses."  Such  a 
course  offers  but  a  very  inadequate  preparation  for  teaching 
anywhere,  much  less  in  a  city  of  the  importance  of  Port- 
land, 


172  The  Portland  Survey 

Cost. of  the  Examination  System 

One  other  feature  of  the  administration  of  the  Portland 
high  schools  is  worthy  of  serious  consideration :  that  is  the 
examination  system  to  determine  the  promotion  of  pupils. 
This  system  in  the  high  schools  is  practically  the  same  as 
that  in  the  grades,  which  has  been  described  and  commented 
upon  at  length  in  the  earlier  part  of  this  chapter.  Four 
times  each  year,  at  the  end  and  in  the  middle  of  each  of  the 
two  terms,  a  whole  week  is  given  up  to  formal  examinations, 
and  another  week  is  devoted  to  definite  preparation  for  them. 
Twenty  per  cent,  of  the  school  year  devoted  to  examinations 
and  specific  preparation  for  them,  certainly  seems  like  a 
large  price  to  pay  for  information  regarding  pupils'  knowl- 
edge and  ability,  which,  in  most  cases,  is  already  known  by 
teachers  better  than  any  examination  can  reveal.  To  fur- 
nish this  superfluous  and  somewhat  unreliable  information 
seems  to  be  the  main  purpose  for  which  these  examinations 
are  maintained.  Undoubtedly  pupils  learn  something,  often 
much,  in  the  course  of  preparing  for  examinations  and  in 
undergoing  them;  but  the  amount  of  time  that  can  be  profit- 
ably given  to  formal  examinations  must  be  limited.  The 
Portland  school  authorities  appreciated  this  fact  in  part, 
about  seventeen  years  ago,  when  the  monthly  examination 
system  of  that  time  was  made  to  give  way  to  the  present 
plan  of  four  examinations  per  year.  A  further  appreciation 
of  it  is  needed  now. 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  CHIEF  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  PRESENT 
SYSTEM  OF  ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  EDUCATION 

I.  A  rigidly  prescribed,  mechanical  system  of  instruc- 
tion, organization,  and  administration,  poorly  adapted  both 
to  the  needs  of  the  children  and  youth  to  be  educated,  and 
of  the  community  to  be  provided  with  efficiently  trained  serv- 
ice, is  the  most  universally  evident  fact  of  the  Portland 
schools. 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction  173 

2.  ,No  one  is  wholly  or  primarily  responsible  for  the  sys- 
tem that  dominates  and  mechanizes  the  thoughts  and  efforts 
of  all  connected  with  it  —  school  board,  superintendent,  as- 
sistant superintendents,  principals,  teachers,  and  pupils. 

3.  The  mechanical  system  manifests  itself  in  the  course 
of  study : 

(a)  The  elementary  course  of  study  is  dead,  vivi- 
sected mathematically  into  fifty-four  separate  prescrip- 
tions, most  of  which  are  composed  of  a  given  number 
of  pages  from  certain  textbooks. 

(b)  Regardless  of  age  or  need,  pupils  are  fitted  to 
this  dead  curriculum;  there  is  no  adaptation  of  the  cur- 
riculum to  the  pupil.    As  a  consequence,  there  are  chil- 
dren of  each  year  of  age,  from  eleven  to  fifteen  inclu- 
sive, in  every  one  of  the  nine  elementary  grades. 

(c)  There    is    abundant    evidence    that    almost    no 
thought  was  ever  devoted  to  the  working  out  and  for- 
mulation of  the  elementary  course  of  study. 

(d)  In  content  the  elementary  course  of  study  pre- 
sents the  following  characteristics : 

(1)  The  prescriptions  of  subject-matter  are  abso- 
lutely and  mechanically  uniform  for  all. 

(2)  The  prescribed  work  is  overwhelmingly  ab- 
stract and  bookish. 

(3)  An  excessive  amount  of  time  is  given  to  ab- 
stract arithmetic  and  technical  grammar. 

(4)  Composition  receives  inadequate  attention. 

(5)  The  study  of  history  is  deferred  to  a  point 
that  one  third  of  the  pupils  never  reach. 

4.  The  mechanical  system  manifests  itself  in  the  scheme 
of  promotional  examinations: 

(a)  The  scheme  is  mechanical. 

(b)  The  anticipations  of  examinations  dominate  and 
distort  the  work  of  teachers  and  pupils. 


174  The  Portland  Survey 

(c)    The   examinations   are   wasteful  of   time   and 
effort. 

5.  The  mechanical  system  manifests  itself  in  the  spirit 
and  method  of  instruction  in  the  classrooms : 

(a)  In  the  lowest  grades,  where  the  system  bears  less 
heavily,  the  work  is  generally  good,  much  of  it  very 
good,  some  of  it  excellent. 

(b)  Work  in  the  grammar  grades  is  characterized 
by  routine,   lack  of  method,   absence  of   evidence  of 
genuine  interest. 

(c)  In  the  grammar  grades,  reading  is  perfunctory; 
composition,  very  poor;    penmanship,  careless;    geog- 
raphy,  abstract  and   bookish;  history,   dry  and   dull; 
arithmetic  and  technical  grammar  taught  with  consider- 
able skill,  but  greatly  overemphasized,  and  the  instruc- 
tion not  adapted  to  human  needs. 

6.  The  influence  of  the  mechanical  system  is  manifested 
in  the  attitude  of  principals,  teachers,  and  pupils  in  the  gram- 
mar grades : 

(a)  It  relieves  teachers  of  educational  responsibility. 

(b)  It  encourages  passive,  routine,  clerical  work  on 
the  part  of  both  teachers  and  pupils. 

(c)  Its  effect  on  the  principals  is  deadening ;  it  neither 
requires  nor  encourages,  it  scarcely  even  permits,  the 
assumption  of  any  real   educational  responsibility  by 
them. 

7.  The  absence  of  the  mechanizing  effects  of  the  system 
is  manifested  in  the  activity,  originality,  independence,  in- 
terest and  enthusiasm  which  characterizes  the  work  of  the 
primary  grades. 

8.  There  is  a  dearth  of  suitable  and  even  necessary  edu- 
cational material  throughout  the  elementary  grades. 

9.  Classes  in  the  elementary  schools  are  of  commendable 
size. 


Elementary  and  Secondary  Instruction          175 

10.  The  discipline  in  the  elementary  schools  is  excellent. 

11.  Provisions  for  defectives  are  wholly  inadequate. 

12.  Provisions  for  secondary  education  are   found  in 
three  high  schools  and  in  the  School  of  Trades. 

13.  In  the  last  five  years  there  has  been  a  rapid  growth 
of  secondary  pupils,  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  increase  in 
total  school  enrollment. 

14.  There  are  some  excellent  and  some  grossly  inefficient 
teachers  in  the  high  schools,  some  of  the  representatives  of 
inefficiency  drawing  larger  salaries  than  the  representatives 
of  excellence. 

15.  High  school  principals  and  teachers  are  engaged  in 
teaching  subjects,  rather  than  in  educating  the  youth  of  the 
city. 

1 6.  The  uniformity  of  curriculum  for  all  high  schools  is 
a  distinct  barrier  to  progress. 

17.  Subjects  are  uniform  and  isolated. 

1 8.  Pupils'  courses  lack  unity  and  defmiteness  of  pur- 
pose. 

19.  The  examination  system  costs  twenty  per  cent,  of  the 
school  year,  and  its  results  are  of  little  value. 


CHAPTER  IX 

OUTLINE  OF  AN  EDUCATIONAL  PROGRAM 
ADAPTED  TO  LOCAL  EDUCATIONAL  NEEDS 

IN  Chapter  VIII  the  character  and  scope  of  the  educa- 
tional program  at  present  being  carried  out  in  the 
school  district  was  set  forth  in  some  detail.  The  defects 
and  shortcomings  of  that  program  were  dealt  with  especially 
there,  and  at  length.  We  also  tried  to  recognize  at  least 
its  chief  distinctive  merits.  The  fact  that  the  defects  and 
shortcomings  are  more  numerous  than  the  merits  recorded, 
and  that  to  the  discussion  of  the  former  far  more  space  is 
devoted  than  to  the  latter,  gives  no  warrant  whatever  for 
the  conclusion  that,  in  the  main,  the  local  school  system  is 
positively  bad  and  inefficient.  Such  is  by  no  means  the 
truth;  the  positive  merits  of  the  present  system  outweigh 
many  times  the  recorded  defects,  which  are  mainly  relative. 

POINT   OF   VIEW   AND    PURPOSE   IN    THIS   STUDY 

Lest  this  last  statement  may  seem  out  of  harmony  with 
the  content  and  spirit  of  the  last  chapter,  and  to  guard 
against  the  drawing  of  unjustifiable  conclusions  from  that 
chapter,  a  brief  explanation  here  concerning  the  point  of 
view  and  purpose  of  this  part  of  our  study  may  not  be  out 
of  place.  We  have  studied  the  present  school  program  in 
the  light  of  an  ideal  —  not  a  visionary,  but  a  wholly  prac- 
ticable ideal;  we  have  studied  what  is  being  done  in  the 
light  of  something  more  and  better  that  may  be  done. 
Were  our  standard  and  purpose  totally  different,  were  we 
setting  forth  the  accomplishments  of  the  present  school  sys- 
tem in  comparison  with  a  zero  accomplishment,  our  findings 
would  be  very  different.  Under  these  conditions,  even  the 

176 


Outline  of  Educational  Program  177 

features  of  the  present  system  that  we  have  criticised  most 
severely  would  appear  meritorious.  A  single  extreme  illus- 
tration will  suffice  to  make  this  clear:  unquestionably  it  is 
better  to  exercise  the  mind  of  a  deaf  youth  on  the  dry  husks 
of  technical  grammar  than  to  allow  him  to  grow  up  wholly 
untutored;  but  it  were  far  better  still  to  exercise  both  the 
mind  and  hand  of  that  youth  in  learning  to  do  something 
useful  for  himself  and  for  the  community. 

We  Are  Facing  the  Future 

In  the  study  which  we  have  made  of  the  Portland  school 
system,  it  has  not  been  our  purpose  at  all  to  cast  up  and 
close  the  account,  as  it  were,  showing  a  final  balance  of 
merit  or  defects ;  such  a  showing,  were  it  possible,  is  unim- 
portant. Still  less  has  it  been  our  purpose  even  remotely 
to  suggest  either  credit  or  censure,  as  a  personal  matter,  for 
present  conditions  and  achievements;  such  a  bestowal  of 
personal  praise  or  blame  were  still  less  important.  We  are 
facing  the  future.  How  can  the  educational  opportunities 
and  needs  of  the  community  —  those  of  the  immediate  fu- 
ture —  be  more  adequately  met  than  present  provisions  are 
capable  of  meeting  them?  This  is  the  all-important  ques- 
tion with  which  this  study  is  concerned ;  this  is  the  one  great 
question  that  must  command  the  full  and  loyal  attention  of 
all  locally  engaged  in  the  educational  service,  of  all  citizens 
who  are  genuinely  interested  in  the  educational  welfare  and 
progress  of  the  community;  this  is  the  question  whose  pro- 
gressive answer  during  the  next  five  years  may  easily  place 
Portland  educationally  in  the  very  front  rank  of  American 
cities. 

To  aid  in  answering  the  above  question  is  the  purpose  of 
this  chapter.  The  preceding  chapter  was  written  solely  in 
preparation  for  this  one.  That  chapter,  necessarily  so  full 
of  the  defects  and  shortcomings  of  the  present  system,  as 
already  explained,  serves  its  preparatory  purpose  in  three 
ways:  first,  it  absolutely  precludes  the  otherwise  possible 


178  The  Portland  Survey 

illusion  that  the  present  school  system  is  really  doing  —  per- 
haps under  somewhat  different  forms  —  substantially  what 
the  program  to  be  outlined  in  this  section  demands ;  second, 
it  helps  to  bring  out  more  clearly  by  contrast  the  chief  dis- 
tinguishing features  of  this  proposed  program  and  so  to 
focus  attention  upon  them;  and,  finally,  it  is  the  necessary 
basis  of  appreciation  of  the  program  of  the  future,  just  as 
the  present  system  in  practice  must  be  the  basis  of  future 
developments.  The  program  to  be  here  outlined  has  neces- 
sarily been  anticipated,  to  some  extent. 


FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES 

In  the  working  out  of  the  local  problem  of  education,  as 
presented  in  the  preceding  chapter,  and  in  adapting  it  to 
local  needs  and  conditions,  it  is  quite  obvious  that  the  fol- 
lowing three  simple,  common-sense  propositions  must  be 
observed : 

First.  The  children  and  youth  of  the  community  must  be 
constantly  and  sympathetically  studied  by  teachers  and  prin- 
cipals, in  order  that  these  may  understand  at  all  times  the 
condition,  the  capacity,  the  interests,  and  the  educational 
needs  of  each  child  or  youth. 

Second.  The  various  present  and  prospective  opportuni- 
ties and  needs  of  the  community  for  worthy  service  must 
also  be  studied,  constantly  and  appreciatively,  particularly 
by  those  immediately  responsible  for  the  education  of  youth 
soon  to  be  called  upon  to  take  effective  part  in  the  occupa- 
tions and  life  of  the  community. 

Third.  The  instruction  of  each  child  and  youth  —  the 
content,  the  method,  and  the  immediate  purpose  of  that  in- 
struction —  must  be  constantly  adapted  to  the  needs  of  that 
child  or  youth,  in  the  light  of  the  needs  of  the  community. 

Only  through  the  intelligent  and  constant  observance  of 
these  three  propositions  in  practice  is  it  possible  for  the 
schools  to  perform  the  largest  service  to  the  children  and 
youth  of  the  community  and  to  the  community  itself.  In- 


Outline  of  Educational  Program  179 

deed,  these  three  propositions  constitute  the  three  compre- 
hensive, fundamental,  working  principles  on  which  any  ade- 
quate system  of  education  for  this,  or  for  any  other  Amer- 
ican community,  must  be  based.  Moreover,  these  principles 
must  be  constantly  observed,  not  alone  in  the  general  admin- 
istration of  the  school  system,  but  equally  in  the  minute  de- 
tails of  schoolroom  procedure ;  they  must  be  observed  alike 
by  school  board,  by  superintendent  and  assistant  superin- 
tendents, by  supervisors,  principals,  and  teachers. 


The  observance  of  these  principles  will  lead  to  constant 
changes  throughout  the  school  system  —  changes  in  the 
courses  of  study ;  changes  in  the  types  of  schools ;  changes 
in  the  organization  of  the  various  types  of  schools  into  a 
harmonious  system ;  changes  in  the  organization  within  the 
individual  schools  and  within  the  individual  classrooms; 
changes  in  the  immediate  aims  and  in  the  detailed  methods 
of  instruction  of  every  teacher.  The  constant  changes  which 
the  observance  of  these  principles  must  determine  will  in- 
dicate, not  anarchy;  not  lack  of  purpose,  plan  or  system; 
but  the  continuously  progressive  adaptation  of  forms,  in- 
struments, means,  and  methods  of  education  to  the  ever 
varying  needs  of  different  children  and  youth,  and  to  the 
ever  changing  and  growing  needs  of  the  community  for  serv- 
ice. The  observance  of  these  principles,  with  the  constant 
changes  that  their  observance  will  impose,  will  insure  the 
unity  and  continuity  of  intelligent  effort  to  make  the  most 
possible  of  every  child  and  youth  of  the  community,  that 
both  the  individual  and  the  community  may  profit  to  the 
utmost. 

THE    EDUCATIONAL    PROBLEM    THAT    PRESENTS    ITSELF    TO 

PORTLAND 

To  go  right  to  the  heart  of  the  matter,  in  the  simplest 
possible  way,  what  is  the  immediately  educational  problem 


180  The  Portland  Survey 

that  presents  itself  to  this  community?  Simply  this :  Here 
are  forty-three  thousand  children  and  youth  from  four  to 
twenty  years  of  age;  not  quite  one  half  of  them  are  com- 
pelled by  present  law  to  attend  school ;  three  fourths  of  the 
remainder  are  "  entitled  to  school  privileges  " ;  all  of  them 
constitute  the  living,  educable  assets  of  the  community. 
What  shall  be  done  for  these  forty-three  thousand  children 
and  youth  that  their  efficiency,  their  value  to  themselves  and 
to  the  community,  may  be  increased  to  the  largest  possible 
extent  ?  That  the  community  desires,  not  simply  to  meet  the 
letter  of  the  educational  law  of  the  state,  but  to  make  the 
most  possible  through  education  of  the  young  people  of 
the  community,  is  assumed  without  question.  How  can 
this  be  done?  This  is  the  simple  question  whose  repeated 
answer  must  determine  the  entire  activity  and  process  of  the 
educational  program,  from  the  most  comprehensive  admin- 
istrative measure  to  the  least  detail  of  classroom  procedure. 

The  First  Step 

When  we  have  resolved  the  problem  thus  into  its  simple, 
naked  elements,  it  is  plain  to  see  that  the  first  step  in  its 
solution  is  always  an  understanding  of  the  material  —  the 
boys  and  girls  —  that  we  propose  to  improve  through  edu- 
cation. Any  group  of  forty-three  thousand  children  and 
youth  presents  an  untold  wealth  of  growing,  budding,  hu- 
man interests  and  capacities  of  richest  variety.  How  much 
more  the  particular  group  of  forty-three  thousand  children 
and  youth  of  Portland,  of  many  nationalities,  drawn  —  se- 
lected, in  a  sense  —  from  every  state  in  the  Union  and  from 
nearly  every  country  in  the  world,  presents  such  wealth! 
An  intelligent  process  of  education  applied  to  these  many 
thousand  boys  and  girls  means  nothing  more  or  less  than 
the  recognition,  development,  and  training  to  highest  use- 
fulness of  each  of  the  forty-three  thousand  distinct  and  dif- 
ferent groups  of  interests  and  capacities  that  we  call  indi- 
viduality. We  must  study  these  forty-three  thousand  boys 


Outline  of  Educational  Program  181 

and  girls  sympathetically,  appreciatively  —  not  as  a  mass, 
but  individually  —  if  we  would  adapt  our  educational  efforts 
intelligently  to  the  development  of  the  best  that  is  in  each 
one  of  them. 

An  Impossible  Undertaking 

But  is  not  this  a  prodigious  undertaking  —  to  know  inti- 
mately, as  is  necessary,  forty-three  thousand  boys  and  girls, 
whose  personnel  is  changing  by  several  thousands  every 
year?  How  is  it  possible  for  one  to  compass  such  a  task? 
It  is  not  possible ;  it  is  utterly  impossible ;  one  ought  never  to 
undertake  it;  one  ought  never  to  assume  to  prescribe  the 
content  and  character  of  the  educational  process  to  be  ap- 
plied to  each  of  forty-three  thousand  young  people.  There 
are,  in  the  system,  approximately  nine  hundred  teachers, 
principals,  and  supervisors ;  theirs  should  be  the  responsibil- 
ity of  knowing  somewhat  intimately  every  individual  in  this 
constantly  changing  army  of  children  and  youth;  theirs 
should  be  the  responsibility,  under  wise  guidance  and  leader- 
ship, of  adapting  the  educational  process,  both  in  content 
and  method,  to  individual  needs.  For  them,  this  task  is 
difficult,  to  be  sure,  but  not  impossible. 

Large  Numbers  No  Excuse  for  Machine  Methods 

The  largeness  of  the  number  of  pupils  involved  in  this, 
or  in  any  other,  school  system,  constitutes  no  valid  excuse 
whatever  for  mass  treatment  and  machine  methods;  such 
treatment  and  methods  simply  reveal  the  fact  that  someone, 
or  some  few  individuals,  are  attempting  that  which,  in  the 
very  nature  of  conditions,  they  are  utterly  incompetent  to 
do  wisely,  viz.,  to  prescribe  the  educational  treatment  of 
thousands  of  children  with  whom  they  can  have  no  ac- 
quaintance. Large  numbers  of  children  to  be  educated  de- 
mand correspondingly  large  numbers  of  teachers  for  the 
task.  Only  let  each  teacher  bear  the  responsibility  and  ex- 
ercise the  intelligence  worthy  of  a  real  teacher,  and  the  indi- 


1 82  The  Portland  Survey 

viduality  of  the  child  who  is  one  in  a  system  of  one  hundred 
thousand  pupils  may  be  as  fully  respected  and  as  adequately 
treated  as  though  he  were  one  in  a  system  of  one  hundred 
pupils.  The  progressive  withdrawal  from  teachers  and 
principals,  as  their  numbers  increase,  of  opportunity  and  re- 
sponsibility for  the  exercise  of  worthy  educational  intelli- 
gence, and  the  corresponding  increased  assumption  of  re- 
sponsibility by  central  authority,  as  the  knowledge  neces- 
sary for  the  wise  exercise  of  it  decreases,  is  indeed  a  preva- 
lent, but  none  the  less  a  mistaken  practice,  without  justifica- 
tion or  merit. 

Character  of  the  Program  to  be  Projected 

What  has  just  been  said  must  suggest,  both  positively  and 
negatively,  the  character  of  the  educational  program  here  to 
be  outlined.  Obviously  this  program  cannot  undertake  to 
deal  in  detail  with  the  educational  needs  of  individuals,  nor 
to  prescribe  the  content  and  character  of  the  educational 
processes  best  adapted  to  those  needs ;  this  would  not  be  de- 
sirable, were  it  practicable,  for  these  are  matters  to  be 
worked  out,  day  by  day,  and  every  day  as  long  as  their  serv- 
ice lasts,  by  the  nine  hundred  permanent  teachers,  princi- 
pals, supervisors,  and  superintendents  of  the  system.  What 
this  program  can  do  safely  and  profitably,  is  to  project,  in 
broad  outlines,  comprehensive  plans  of  procedure  adequate 
to  the  problem  before  us  and  to  point  the  way  to  the  work- 
ing out  of  those  plans  in  detail. 

In  projecting  these  plans,  we  begin,  not  with  the  course 
of  study,  or  with  the  methods  of  its  administration,  but 
with  the  boys  and  girls  to  be  educated ;  for  it  is  their  needs, 
their  individual  needs,  that  must  everywhere  and  always 
determine  the  course  of  study,  its  administration,  and  every 
phase  of  the  organization  and  conduct  of  the  schools.  This 
priority  of  consideration  cannot  be  overemphasized ;  for  not 
only  is  it  demanded  by  the  very  nature  of  the  problem  with 
which  we  are  dealing,  but  it  is  contrary  to  present  prevailing 


Outline  of  Educational  Program  183 

practice,  not  alone  in  Portland,  but  to  a  great  extent,  it  must 
be  confessed,  in  many  other  cities.  The  order  of  procedure 
here  in  attacking  the  problem  of  education  as  a  whole,  may 
well  serve  as  an  example  to  every  teacher,  principal,  and 
supervisor  in  working  out  this  problem,  even  in  its  minutest 
details,  for  the  first  safe  step  is  universally  and  invariably 
the  discovery  of  the  individual  needs  of  the  children  or 
youth  who  are  to  be  taught. 

SEVEN  FACTORS  DETERMINING  THE  GROUPING  OF  CHILDREN 

Due  regard  for  individual  needs  does  not  demand  that  in- 
struction be  individual  to  any  large  extent,  in  the  sense  that 
pupils  be  taught  alone;  it  does  demand  that  pupils  whose 
individual  needs  are  sufficiently  similar  be  grouped  into 
schools  and  classes ;  that  pupils  of  very  diverse  needs  be  not 
taught  together,  for  their  instruction  should  be  radically  dif- 
ferent, either  in  content  or  in  method,  or  in  both. 

The  principal  factors  which  will  determine  the  advan- 
tageous grouping  of  boys  and  girls  for  educational  purposes 
are  the  following: 

1.  Maturity,  most  readily,  but  only  roughly,  indicated 
by  age. 

2.  Knowledge,  and  ability  to  learn  and  to  do. 

3.  Probable  time  to  be  devoted  to  schooling,  due  to 
economic  condition  of  family,  personal  capacity,  apti- 
tude, and  inclination. 

4.  Natural  capacity  and  interest. 

5.  Command  of  the  English  language. 

6.  Marked  defects,  abnormalities  and  subnormalities, 
physical  and  mental. 

7.  Sex. 

Some  of  the  above  characteristics  and  conditions  overlap, 
more  or  less,  yet  each  one  is  sufficiently  distinct  to  serve  as 
a  valuable  practical  guide  in  actually  determining  the  place- 
ment of  any  child  or  youth.  Such  actual  placement  will  be 


184  The  Portland  Survey 

determined  as  the  resultant  of  giving  to  each  of  these  fac- 
tors its  due  weight.  The  relative  importance  of  each  factor 
may  vary,  under  different  conditions,  from  zero  to  a  degree 
outweighing  all  others  combined.  Hence,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  suitable  grouping  of  children  for  educational  purposes 
is  no  routine  or  mechanical  matter;  the  placement  of  every 
single  child  requires  study,  knowledge,  thought,  insight, 
and  judgment  of  a  high  order.  But,  really,  is  not  every 
child  worthy  of  this  much  consideration,  even  though  we 
are  dealing  with  them  by  the  tens  of  thousands?  It  were 
certainly  an  unworthy  parent  who  did  not  think  so  most 
emphatically  concerning  his  own  child.  A  brief  considera- 
tion of  each  of  the  above  factors  in  turn,  with  some  refer- 
ence to  their  application  to  the  local  problem,  will  help  us  to 
appreciate  their  importance,  and  to  see  something  of  the  re- 
sult of  their  application  to  the  suitable  grouping  of  the 
children  and  youth  of  Portland. 

THE   SIGNIFICANCE  OF  AGE  AND   OVER  AGE 

At  the  present  time,  the  question  of  maturity,  as  repre- 
sented by  age,  seems  to  be  raised  just  once  during  every 
pupil's  school  career  —  that  is,  on  admission  to  the  school 
system.  If  the  applicant  for  admission  is  between  six  years 
of  age  and  twenty-one,  he  is  admitted  to  school  privileges ;  if 
his  age  falls  outside  these  limits,  he  is  denied  school  privi- 
leges, except  that  in  case  he  is  over  twenty-one  he  may  be 
given  instruction  on  the  payment  of  a  fee.  Maturity,  as  in- 
dicated by  age,  appears  to  have  at  present  no  influence  what- 
ever in  determining  the  grouping  and  classification  of  pupils 
who  are  admitted  to  the  system,  or  the  content  and  method 
of  their  instruction,  except  that  candidates  for  admission  to 
the  School  of  Trades  must  be  at  least  fourteen  years  of  age. 

Children  under  Six  Educable 

Children  under  six  years  are  now  denied  all  school  privi- 
leges in  the  district.  In  the  school  district  there  are  over 


Outline  of  Educational  Program  185 

five  thousand  children  between  four  and  six  years  of  age. 
That  the  education  of  children  can  be  profitably  begun  at 
this  age  has  been  demonstrated  for  years  in  the  kindergar- 
tens and  sub-primary  rooms  of  hundreds  of  school  systems. 

The  Age  Range  within  which  Children  May  Advanta- 
geously Be  Instructed  Together 

In  June,  1913,  there  were  in  the  first  six  grades  of  the 
Portland  schools  17,606  children;  these  children  ranged  in 
age  from  six  to  nineteen  years,  in  the  preceding  February, 
when  the  ages  were  taken.  Engaged  on  work  that  is  sup- 
posed normally  to  occupy  children  for  about  six  years  — 
from  six  to  twelve  years  of  age  —  were  children  and  youth 
of  an  extreme  age  range  of  fourteen  years.  The  oldest 
children  were  by  no  means  all  in  the  higher  of  these  grades ; 
the  smallest  age  range  in  any  grade  was  eleven  years,  in  the 
fifth  and  sixth  grades,  while  the  four  lower  grades  con- 
tained pupils  differing  in  age  by  twelve,  thirteen,  and  four- 
teen years.  It  is  possibly  true  that  no  single  classroom 
contained  pupils  of  quite  the  extreme  age  range  here  indi- 
cated; it  is  probably  true  that  the  pupils  of  comparatively 
few  rooms  represented  an  age  range  exceeding  six  or  seven 
years ;  it  must  be  also  true  that  an  age  range  of  five  years,  or 
more,  is  common,  beyond  the  first  grade,  as  no  measures 
are  taken  to  segregate  pupils  on  account  of  age.1 

Assuming  that  the  subject-matter  of  instruction  is  to  be 
substantially  the  same  for  all,  and  that  all  have  already  ap- 
proximately the  same  knowledge  of  that  subject-matter, 
within  what  range  of  age  may  children  be  advantageously 
grouped  together  into  classes?  It  is  impossible  to  give  an 
answer  to  this  question  that  would  be  universally  applicable, 
as  age  is  only  an  approximate  index  of  maturity  and  of  the 
possession  of  characteristics  that  normally  accompany  dif- 

1  Careful  statistical  studies  of  age  and  grade  distribution,  made  by  Mr. 
Tanner  for  the  schools  studied  by  Superintendent  Spaulding,  show  an  age 
range  of  four  to  six  years  for  the  different  grades.  —  DIRECTOR. 


i86 


The  Portland  Survey 


ferent  degrees  of  maturity.  On  the  whole,  however,  for 
children  of  six  to  fourteen  years,  a  range  of  more  than 
three  years  is  not  desirable;  a  range  of  four  years  begins 
to  be  too  great ;  that  is,  were  large  numbers  of  such  children 
grouped  for  advantageous  instruction  into  classes  accord- 
ing to  age,  it  would  probably  be  found  that  an  age  range  of 
four  years  proved  too  large  more  frequently  than  suitable. 
If  we  apply  this  age  range  by  grades  to  the  enrollment  in 
the  first  six  grades  in  June,  1913,  considering  within  the  ex- 
treme four-year  range  all  pupils  of  the  four  age  years  hav- 
ing the  largest  number  of  representatives,  we  get  results  as 
shown  in  the  following  table : 

TABLE  XVI 

AGE  DISTRIBUTION  IN  CERTAIN  GRADES 


Grade 

Total 
Enroll- 
ment 

Four  Age  Years 
Most  Largely 
Represented 

Enrollment 
of  these  Four 
Age  Years 

I   

3,742 

6-7-8-0 

3,660 

n  

3,226 

7—  8—  o-io 

2,022 

in  

2,<2Q 

8—  9—  10—  ii 

2  311 

rv  

2,OO8 

8—  9—10—11 

2.CII 

v  

2,612 

9—10-11—12 

2.2CO 

VI    

2.C.4Q 

10-11-12—13 

2,  ICO 

Totals  

I7,6o6 

TC  Q2I 

Grade 

No. 
Younger 

Per  Cent. 

Younger 

No. 
Older 

Per  Cent. 
Older 

I   

o 

73 

2 

II   

1  20 

4 

84 

•Z 

ni  

112 

c 

106 

C 

IV    

12 

i 

385 

1C 

v  

14 

i 

370 

17 

VI   

21 

i 

378 

18 

Totals  

270 

2 

I.4OC, 

Outline  of  Educational  Program  187 

Reclassification  on  Account  of  Age 

According  to  the  above  analysis,  eleven  per  cent,  of  all 
pupils  working  in  the  first  six  grades  were  badly  classified. 
In  other  words,  assuming  —  contrary  to  the  facts  —  that  all 
other  factors  were  satisfactorily  observed  in  the  classifica- 
tion of  these  pupils,  due  regard  for  the  factor  of  age  alone 
would  lead  to  a  different  classification  of  eleven  per  cent,  of 
them.  This  analysis,  let  it  be  repeated,  can  be  taken  to  give 
only  approximate  figures.  That,  for  example,  every  one  of 
the  identical  379  pupils  in  Grade  V  who  were  thirteen  years 
of  age  and  over  —  57  of  them  were  over  fifteen  —  could  be 
classified  more  advantageously,  is  not  probable;  it  is  quite 
certain  that  a  considerable  number  of  the  2,259  pupils  whose 
ages  fell  within  the  four  age  years,  chiefly  of  those  twelve 
years  of  age,  were  too  old  for  their  classification  with  chil- 
dren of  nine  and  ten;  hence,  the  estimate  of  a  total  of  379 
as  too  old  for  their  class  grouping  would  probably  prove, 
upon  study,  to  be  considerably  under,  rather  than  over  the 
actual  number.  The  same  will  hold  true  of  the  estimated 
numbers  of  excessively  old  children  in  each  of  the  other 
grades;  these  estimates  are  undoubtedly,  in  every  grade, 
well  within  the  actual  numbers  needing  better  classification. 
The  number  of  extremely  young  children  in  each  grade  is 
so  small  —  two  per  cent,  for  the  six  grades  —  and  these  few 
are  doubtless  so  scattered  throughout  the  city,  that  any 
separate  classification  of  them  would  probably  be  impractical. 

Some  of  the  Causes  of  Over  Age 

But  age  —  or  maturity  as  indicated  by  age  —  never  actu- 
ally occurs  as  the  sole  factor,  never  'even  a<s  the  sole  important 
factor,  to  be  considered  in  determining  suitable  groupings 
of  pupils.  Where  a  number  of  children  of  widely  varying 
ages  have  approximately  the  same  degree  of  knowledge  of 
elementary  school  subjects,  there  are  sure  to  be  important 
conditions  or  characteristics  that  have  resulted  in  the  ac- 


1 88  The  Portland  Survey 

quisition  of  the  same  degree  of  knowledge  at  widely  differ- 
ent ages.  Some  are  extremely  backward,  and  in  conse- 
quence, although  they  have  had  equal  advantages,  have  been 
well  taught,  and  have  exercised  faithfully  such  powers  as 
they  possess,  have  advanced  no  further,  in  terms  of  conven- 
tional school  subjects,  at  ten,  eleven,  or  twelve  years  of  age, 
than  have  other  children  at  seven  or  eight ;  others  are  back- 
ward to  the  point  of  marked  deficiency,  even  imbecility,  so 
that  in  knowledge  of  school  subjects  they  can  never  equal 
normal,  well-taught  children  of  six  or  seven;  some  over- 
age pupils,  who  are  normally  endowed  by  nature,  have  had 
slight  educational  opportunities ;  others  have  been  misunder- 
stood by  their  teachers,  have  not  been  "  reached,"  and  so 
have  not  applied  themselves  diligently;  unfamiliarity  with 
the  English  language,  as  the  native  tongue,  is  chiefly  re- 
sponsible for  the  over  age  of  others ;  sense  defects,  mal- 
nutrition, overwork  outside  of  school,  unfortunate  home 
conditions,  disease,  alone  or  in  combination,  account  for  the 
over  age  of  still  others.  This  by  no  means  exhausts  the  list 
of  principal  causes,  that,  operating  alone,  or  more  fre- 
quently in  combination,  result  in  over  age;  that  is,  in  an 
age  exceeding  normal  in  the  acquisition  of  a  given  degree 
of  knowledge  and  ability  respecting  the  usual  school 
subjects. 

Over-age  Pupils  in  the  Portland  Schools 

To  give  a  better  idea  of  the  importance  of  the  study  of 
the  over-age  pupils  for  Portland,  we  reproduce  here  a  few 
tables,  showing  their  number  and  distribution.  The  Annual 
Report  of  the  Public  Schools  for  the  district  each  year  con- 
tains a  table  that  gives  in  detail  the  age  and  grade  distribu- 
tion of  all  pupils  in  the  elementary  schools  of  the  district. 
This  may  be  found  in  the  report  just  referred  to,  and  for 
that  reason  is  not  reproduced  here.  The  following  tabula- 
tion from  a  table  supplied  by  the  School  Clerk,  and  com- 
piled for  the  school  year  ending  June  26,  1913,  shows  the 


Outline  of  Educational  Program 


189 


condition  even  better  than  the  table  published  in  the  school 
report : 1 

TABLE  XVII 
OVER-AGE  CHILDREN  IN  THE  PORTLAND  SCHOOLS 


Number  of  Pupils  More  Than  One  Year 

No.  of  Pupils  Over 

Grade 

Under  Regular  Age  * 

Over  Regular  Age 

15  (Port. 

14  (High 

High 

School 

Number 

Per  Cent, 
of  Whole 

Number 

Per  Cent, 
of  Whole 

School 
Age) 

Age  Else- 
where) 

First.    .    .    . 

407 

10.9 

5 

ii 

Second  .    .    . 

641 

2O.O 

10 

13 

Third    .    .    . 

i 

789 

3!-3 

13 

32 

Fourth  .    .    . 

12 

810 

27.9 

33 

79 

Fifth.    .    .    . 

14 

864 

32.6 

56 

167 

Sixth.    .    .    . 

21 

799 

3i-3 

123 

S32 

Seventh     .    . 

19 

657 

3°-4 

254 

66  1 

Eighth  .    .    . 

58 

O.2 

412 

22.1 

414 

884 

Ninth    .    .    . 

58 

o-3 

247 

17.6 

680 

1,143 

Totals  .    . 

I83 

0.8 

5,626 

24.4 

or  7.2% 

or  15.0% 

*  By  regular  age  is  meant  the  second-division,  or  nine-year  pupil. 

The  large  number  of  over-age  pupils  in  the  schools  early 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  members  of  the  Survey  staff. 
To  ascertain  whether  or  not  the  distribution  was  general, 
statistical  tables  were  compiled  for  comparison  and  study. 
An  examination  of  these  showed  a  very  general  distribution 
of  over-age  pupils  throughout  all  of  the  schools,  the  out- 
lying schools  not  differing  materially,  in  this  respect,  from 
the  schools  in  the  best  residential  districts.  A  tabulation  of 
the  age  distribution  of  the  pupils  in  the  three  high  schools 
was  also  prepared,  and  this,  together  with  a  summary  of 
the  over-age  conditions  found  in  the  eight  schools  studied 

1  Tables  XVII,  XVIII,  and  XIX  are  inserted  in  this  chapter  to  show 
more  fully  the  over-age  conditions  discussed. — DIRECTOR. 


190 


The  Portland  Survey 


in  particular  for  the  purposes  of  this  and  the  preceding 
chapter,  are  given  in  Tables  XVIII  and  XIX,  which  follow. 


TABLE   XVIH 

AGE  AND  GRADE  DISTRIBUTION  FOR  THE  THREE  HIGH  SCHOOLS 
(CALCULATED  TO  JUNE,  1913) 


Ages  of  Pupils  in 
Years 

First 
Year 

Second 
Year 

Third 
Year 

Fourth 
Year 

Totals 

13  to  14     

48 

48 

14  to  15     

204 

3Q 

274 

15  to  16     

^62 

158 

23 

i 

544 

16  to  17     

27< 

28< 

122 

23 

7ic 

17  to  18     

i">8 

261 

2CC 

I  O4. 

778 

18  to  19    

C7 

116 

1  7O 

2OO 

fAI 

19  to  20     

2O 

as 

62 

I2.O 

24  C 

20  to  21     

M 

6 

10 

7"» 

II7. 

21  tO  22       

•2 

I 

6 

21 

71 

22  tO  23       

i 

4 

c 

23  to  24     

o 

24  to  25     

I 

I 

2 

Totals    

1,141 

890 

668 

een 

3,2";8 

Average  Age  of  Class  . 
Number  over  19  Years 
(College  Age)     .    .    . 
Per  Cent,  of  Whole  No. 

1  15  years, 
1  8  months 
36 
3-2 

16  years, 
1  1  months 
40 
4-5 

17  years, 
10  months 
88 
13.2 

20  years, 
8  months 
231 
41-3 

395 

12.  1 

Necessary  Treatment  and  Study  of  Over-age  Pupils 

All  these  children  should  be  carefully  studied  to  deter- 
mine the  cause,  or  causes,  of  their  condition ;  then,  as  far  as 
necessary,  they  should  be  organized  into  separate  classes, 
into  separate  types  of  classes,  so  that  they  may  receive  the 
treatment  that  their  condition  requires.  Such  separate  clas- 
sification for  the  very  large  majority  of  these  over-age  chil- 
dren, for  practically  all  of  those  who  are  two  or  more  years 
over  age  will  undoubtedly  be  found  necessary,  not  only  in 


Outline  of  Educational  Program 


191 


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192  The  Portland  Survey 

the  interest  of  the  efficient  instruction  of  these  pupils  them- 
selves, but  quite  as  much  in  the  interest  of  the  normal  chil- 
dren whose  progress  they  retard  when  classified  with  them. 
For  many  of  these  children,  separate  classification  need  not 
be  permanent.  The  causes  of  their  over-ageness  may  be 
removed  or  overcome;  or  when  segregated  and  given  in- 
struction adapted  in  content  and  method  to  their  peculiar 
needs,  they  will  make  such  rapid  progress  that  within  a 
comparatively  short  time  they  will  be  able  to  take  up  work 
in  a  regular  grade  that  is  normal  for  their  age. 

Importance  of  Anticipating  and  Preventing  the  Develop- 
ment of  Over-age  Pupils 

Important  as  it  is  to  study  the  present  contingent  of  over- 
age children  in  the  schools  and  to  institute  measures  of 
treatment  adapted  to  their  condition,  it  is  still  more  impor- 
tant to  anticipate  over-ageness.  To  this  end,  all  pupils,  but 
especially  those  in  the  first  three  grades,  should  be  studied 
carefully,  and  suitable  steps  taken  to  prevent  the  develop- 
ment in  any  of  them  of  the  condition  of  over-ageness. 
Taken  thus  early,  the  causes  can  be  more  effectually  dealt 
with;  a  very  brief  segregation,  even  some  special  instruc- 
tion in  groups  or  individually,  while  over-ageness  is  in  its 
incipiency,  is  often  sufficient  to  insure  normal  progress 
thereafter.  By  such  anticipatory  measures,  continuously 
applied  throughout  the  grades,  the  present  extent  of  over- 
ageness  in  the  Portland  schools  may  readily  be  cut  one  half, 
or  more,  within  the  next  three  years. 

THE  OTHER   FACTORS   DETERMINING   GROUPING 

Knowledge  and  Ability  respecting  School  Subjects  as  a 
Standard  of  Classification 

Knowledge  of  the  prescribed  subjects  of  study,  with  some 
regard  for  different  degrees  of  ability  to  acquire  such 
knowledge,  seems  at  present  to  be  the  sole  standard  by 


Outline  of  Educational  Program  193 

which  is  determined  the  classification  and  the  instruction, 
both  in  content  and  method,  of  all  pupils  who  have  not  com- 
pleted the  elementary  curriculum,  barring,  perhaps,  a  com- 
paratively negligible  number  of  pupils  over  seventeen  years 
of  age  who  may  be  specially  admitted  to  the  School  of 
Trades.  Thus  it  is  that  we  find  264  children,  from  eleven 
to  eighteen  years  of  age,  working  side  by  side  with  112 
children  under  eight  years  of  age,  because  they  are  all  alike 
in  that  they  all  measure  up  to  third-grade  work.  We  also 
find  385  children,  from  twelve  to  eighteen  years  of  age, 
working  side  by  side  with  291  children  of  seven  and  eight 
years,  because  they  are  all  alike  in  that  they  all  measure  up 
to  fourth-grade  work.  Again,  we  find  656  boys  and  girls, 
from  fourteen  to  nineteen  years  of  age,  who,  through 
necessity  or  choice,  will  complete  their  schooling  within  a 
year  and  go  out  to  take  their  places  among  the  world's 
workers,  sitting  side  by  side  with  887  other  children  of  ten 
to  twelve  years,  most  of  whom,  in  preparation  for  their 
work  of  life,  will  continue  their  schooling  for  yet  five  to 
seven  years,  at  least,  many  of  them  for  ten  years  and 
longer;  those  656  boys  and  girls  and  these  887  other  chil- 
dren are  sitting  side  by  side  and  receiving  the  same  instruc- 
tion, administered  in  the  same  way,  and  devoted  chiefly  to 
the  abstractions  of  arithmetic  and  to  the  dry,  and  to  them 
generally  meaningless,  intricacies  of  technical  grammar, 
and  solely  because  those  656  boys  and  girls  and  these  887 
other  children  are  alike  in  this  —  they  have  all  just  com- 
pleted parts  thirty-one,  thirty-two,  thirty-three,  thirty-four, 
thirty-five,  and  thirty-six  of  the  abstract  arithmetic  and 
technical  grammar  prescribed  for  Grade  VI,  but  they  have 
not  yet  mastered  the  continuation  of  similar  work  as  pre- 
scribed in  parts  thirty-seven,  thirty-eight,  thirty-nine,  forty, 
forty-one,  and  forty-two,  as  prescribed  for  Grade  VII ! 

And  yet,  knowledge  of  the  conventional  elementary  sub- 
jects of  instruction,  especially  reading,  the  use  of  language, 
orally  and  in  writing,  and  of  number,  and  the  ability  to  ad- 
vance in  such  knowledge,  is  a  most  useful  criterion  by  which 


194  The  Portland  Survey 

to  determine  appropriate  classification  and  instruction.  In 
intelligent  practice  this  standard  of  knowledge  and  ability 
will  be  the  determining  factor  in  the  placement  and  instruc- 
tion of  a  large  majority  of  pupils  under  fourteen  years  of 
age,  and  of  many  above  that  age;  but  nowhere  and  never 
should  this  be  the  only  factor  considered. 

Influence  of  the  Length  of  Instruction  in  Determining  its 

Character 

Due  consideration  of  the  probable  time  that  a  given  pupil 
will  devote  to  schooling  should  have  much  influence  in  de- 
termining what  that  pupil's  schooling  shall  be.  In  the  case 
of  a  normal  child  of  six  or  seven  years  of  age,  just  starting 
out  on  his  school  career,  it  is  of  little  immediate  importance 
to  know  whether  that  child  will  go  to  school  for  six  or 
twelve  years;  his  immediate  treatment  and  instruction 
should  not  be  appreciably  affected  by  such  knowledge.  But 
in  the  case  of  children  of  thirteen  or  fourteen  years,  and 
older,  it  becomes  of  prime  importance  to  know  whether  they 
are  likely  to  continue  in  school  for  one,  two,  three,  four,  or 
more  years.  The  proposition,  officially  formulated  and  ap- 
proved twenty  years  ago  by  high  educational  authorities, 
to  the  effect  that  instruction  best  suited  to  the  preparation 
of  pupils  for  admission  to  college  was  also  best  suited  to 
prepare  non-college-going  pupils  for  their  life  work,1  finds 
few  thoughtful  defenders  today;  carried  into  practice,  its 
chief  recommendations  are  its  cheapness  and  facility  of  ad- 
ministration, and  the  relief  that  it  affords  educational  of- 
ficers and  teachers  from  all  responsibility  of  knowing  and 
of  meeting  the  individual  needs  of  their  pupils. 

Purpose  of  All  Public  Instruction  to  Fit  the  Recipient  for 

Usefulness 

All  instruction  —  certainly  all  instruction  at  public  ex- 
pense —  whether  of  the  elementary  school,  the  high  school, 
1  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  of  the  National  Education  Association. 


Outline  of  Educational  Program  195 

the  college,  the  university,  or  any  special  school,  should  be 
dominated  by  the  practical  purpose  of  fitting  the  recipient 
of  that  instruction  for  useful  service  in  the  community.  In 
the  light  of  this  proposition,  it  would  seem  almost  self-evi- 
dent that  the  instruction  given  a  person  who  is  to  enter  serv- 
ice at  the  end  of  one  year  should  be  quite  different  from 
the  year's  instruction  that  is  known  to  be  only  preliminary 
to  several  years'  further  tuition  before  actual,  useful  serv- 
ice will  be  demanded  of  the  recipient.  Even  when  a  person 
proposes,  after  one  year's  preparatory  schooling,  to  render 
service  in  the  same  general  field  that  he  would  enter  after 
several  years'  preparation,  it  seems  hardly  conceivable  that 
the  single  year  of  schooling  could  advantageously  be  made 
identical  with  the  first  of  a  series  of  years  suited  to  a  broad 
and  thorough  preparation  for  usefulness  of  a  high  and  rela- 
tively uncommon  order;  but  when  the  type  of  service  that 
can  best  be  rendered  after  one  year's  preparation  is  quite 
different  from  that  which  might  best  be  rendered  after  sev- 
eral years'  preparation  —  as  is  usually  the  case  —  then  by  so 
much  the  more  should  that  year's  preparation  differ  from 
the  first  of  a  series  of  years'  preparation.  But  if  this  form 
of  a  priori  reasoning  is  not  convincing,  one  may  find  in  the 
hundreds  of  Portland  boys  and  girls  who  annually  complete 
their  schooling  with  some  of  the  elementary  or  lower  high 
school  grades,  no  lack  of  concrete  evidence  of  the  inefficiency 
of  the  training  for  immediate  service,  of  conventional  gram- 
mar and  high  school  courses  that  lead  —  that  were  designed 
to  lead  —  eventually,  if  pursued  long  enough,  to  collegiate, 
technical,  and  other  professional  university  courses,  which 
finally  prepare  for  superior  grades  of  service  the  relatively 
few  who  can  pursue  them. 

Influence  of  Natural  Capacity  and  Interests  in  Determining 
Appropriate  Instruction 

Appreciative  recognition  of  the  natural   individual   ca- 
pacity and  interests  of  a  child  or  youth  —  we  refer  now  only 


ig6  The  Portland  Survey 

to  normal  children  and  youth  —  is  so  obviously  important 
in  determining  the  instruction  best  suited  to  develop  that  ca- 
pacity and  those  interests  into  the  highest  state  of  usefulness 
—  using  this  word  with  broad  significance  —  that  this  matter 
would  need  no  emphasis  or  discussion  here,  were  it  not  that 
it  seems  now  to  be  entirely  ignored  throughout  the  school 
lives  of  more  than  half  of  all  the  pupils  who  enter  the  Port- 
land schools,  and  accorded  only  late  and  quite  inadequate  in- 
fluence in  shaping  the  work  of  the  remainder.  Under  the 
present  system,  what  a  pupil  of  that  larger  half  likes,  or 
what  he  dislikes,  what  he  can  do  easily  and  well,  or  with 
difficulty  and  poorly,  or  not  at  all,  is  of  no  moment  in  shap- 
ing that  pupil's  instruction ;  what  that  instruction  was  to  be, 
even  to  minute  details,  was  prescribed  for  that  pupil  from 
part  one  to  part  fifty-four  inclusive  —  the  same  as  for  thou- 
sands of  others  —  before  he  began  his  school  career,  yes,  be- 
fore he  was  born.  Until  that  fifty-four-times  dissected  body 
of  prescribed  knowledge  is  mastered  even  to  the  fifty-fourth 
part,  no  adaptation  of  instruction  to  individual  capacity  and 
interest  may  be  made.  Since  more  than  half  of  all  pupils 
who  begin  to  travel  along  this  educational  pathway  — 
straight  and  narrow  —  with  its  fifty-four  milestones,  never 
complete  the  journey,  none  of  these  ever  reaches  the  point 
where  he  may  turn  off  into  divergent  ways  better  suited  to 
his  needs.  How  many  of  the  hundreds  of  youth  who  an- 
nually abandon  this  straight  and  narrow  educational  path- 
way —  beginning  to  drop  off  in  large  numbers  from  the 
thirty-sixth  milestone,  and  continuing  to  fall  out  at  every 
succeeding  milestone,  and  between  milestones  —  do  this  be- 
cause no  recognition  is  accorded  their  individual  capacities 
and  interests,  no  one  will  ever  know  until  the  individuality 
and  personality  of  pupils  are  given  adequate  study  and  con- 
sideration. When  that  is  done  as  it  ought  to  be  done  and 
the  remedies  applied,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  a  ma- 
jority of  that  type  who  now  complete  their  schooling  about 
as  soon  as  the  law  permits,  will  then  find  it  advantageous 
to  continue  longer,  and  that  all  will  be  much  better  pre- 


Outline  of  Educational  Program  197 

pared  for  usefulness  than  now,  whenever  their  schooling 
ends. 


Overcoming  the  Handicap   of  the  Non-English-speaking 

Child 

The  handicap  of  the  child  who  enters  school  without  being 
able  to  speak  or  to  understand  the  language  in  which  all  in- 
struction is  given,  is  obvious.  Under  a  skilful  teacher,  this 
handicap  is  gradually  overcome,  but  only  after  considerable 
loss  of  time  and  effort,  not  only  for  the  foreign  child  im- 
mediately concerned,  but  also  for  English-speaking  mem- 
bers of  the  same  class.  In  the  interest  of  efficiency  non- 
English-speaking  children  should  be  classified  by  themselves, 
put  in  charge  of  teachers  especially  qualified  to  deal  with 
them,  and  be  instructed  with  due  regard  to  their  handicap, 
with  the  purpose  of  overcoming  that  handicap  as  quickly 
and  as  thoroughly  as  possible.  A  year  of  such  special  in- 
struction will  usually  be  found  sufficient  to  qualify  these 
pupils  to  enter  regular  classes  with  advantage  to  themselves 
and  without  disadvantage  to  others.  In  that  time  they  will 
have  made  much  more  progress,  not  only  in  the  mastery 
of  the  English  language,  but  in  the  other  regular  subjects 
of  instruction,  than  they  could  have  made  in  classification 
with  English-speaking  pupils. 

Where  the  numbers  are  sufficient,  it  may  be  found  ad- 
vantageous to  group  non-English-speaking  pupils  by  nation- 
alities, although  this  is  not  at  all  necessary  to  their  success- 
ful instruction.  It  will  also  be  desirable  that  the  teachers 
of  these  pupils  have  some  speaking  knowledge  of  the  pupils' 
native  tongue;  but  neither  is  this  a  prerequisite  of  success. 
Only  let  the  instruction  be  objective,  concrete,  clear,  and 
patient,  and  pupils  of  normal  intelligence  will  rapidly  ac- 
quire the  language  new  to  them.  Better  habits  of  pronun- 
ciation and  enunciation,  and  more  correct  and  accurate  use 
of  the  language,  can  be  gained  under  this  special  instruction 
than  is  wont  to  result  when  foreign  children  must  get  com- 


198  The  Portland  Survey 

mand  of  English,  as  best  they  can,  in  classes  of  English- 
speaking  children. 

Segregating  Subnormal  and  Markedly  Abnormal  Children 

The  importance  of  segregating  pupils  of  marked  defects, 
mental  or  physical,  also  those  who,  without  special  defect, 
are  endowed  with  natural  ability  distinctly  below  normal,  is 
now  generally  recognized,  not  only  in  theory,  but  in  the 
practice  of  all  progressive  school  systems.  Results  every- 
where demonstrate  the  value  of  this  policy.  A  detailed  dis- 
cussion of  the  types  of  abnormal  and  subnormal  children 
needing  segregation  and  special  treatment,  is  presented  in 
Chapter  XIV.  No  less  important  is  it,  though  in  practice, 
at  least,  not  yet  so  generally  appreciated,  to  recognize,  with 
appropriate  treatment,  pupils  of  exceptional  ability,  general 
or  special.  Such  recognition  does  not  necessarily  involve 
separate  classification;  individual  encouragement  and  op- 
portunity to  do  more  and  better  work  in  general,  or  to  pur- 
sue some  particular  line  much  farther  than  most  pupils  are 
expected  or  able  to  do,  while  working  in  regular  classes  with 
normal  children,  will  often  be  better  than  segregation,  not 
only  for  the  specially  endowed  child,  but  also  for  the  other 
children. 

Influence  of  Sex  in  Determining  the  Grouping  of  Pupils 

While  there  is  some  slight  difference  of  opinion  and  very 
slight  —  relatively  negligible  —  difference  in  practice,  sex, 
as  such,  seems  to  afford  little  valid  basis  for  any  marked  dis- 
tinction either  in  organization  or  in  the  content  and  method 
of  instruction  previous  to  twelve,  thirteen,  or  possibly  four- 
teen years  of  age.  From  this  age  on,  there  is  much  more 
difference  both  of  opinion  and  of  practice  regarding  co-edu- 
cation. Neither  argument  nor  practice,  however,  has  yet 
demonstrated  at  all  conclusively  the  superiority  either  of 
co-education  or  of  separation  of  the  sexes  during  the  early 
adolescent  period  —  as  long  as  the  subject-matter  of  their 


Outline  of  Educational  Program  199 

instruction  remains  the  same.  This  applies  to  pupils  pur- 
suing the  conventional  high  school  courses  —  courses  de- 
signed to  fit  for  colleges,  whose  admission  requirements  dis- 
regard sex,  and  general  academic  courses  made  up  of  vary- 
ing proportions  of  college  preparatory  subjects,  but  fitting 
neither  sex  for  anything  in  particular.  ' 

The  situation  regarding  co-education  becomes  quite  dif- 
ferent, however,  as  the  specific  educational  needs  of  boys 
and  girls  are  distinguished  and  recognized  with  types  of  in- 
struction specially  adapted  to  meet  those  needs.  For  ex- 
ample, practical  courses  in  household  arts  are  especially 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  girls,  while  equally  practical  courses 
in  the  machine  shop  are  especially  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
some  boys.  The  introduction  of  these  and  similar  courses 
meeting  specific  needs,  varying  with  the  sexes,  necessarily 
involves  the  separation  of  sexes,  so  far  as  instruction  in 
these  courses  is  concerned.  But  the  introduction  of  these 
specific,  practical  courses,  some  adapted  to  the  peculiar  needs 
of  boys,  others  to  the  peculiar  needs  of  girls,  is  beginning 
to  influence  materially,  as  it  ought,  the  instruction  in  other 
subjects  pursued  along  with  these  practical  courses.  The 
mathematics  and  science,  for  example,  that  should  accom- 
pany a  course  in  the  household  arts  are  quite  different  from 
the  mathematics  and  science  best  suited  to  a  course  in  the 
machine  shop ;  the  same  is  true  also,  to  some  extent,  of  his- 
tory and  even  of  English.  Thus,  without  regard  to  the 
merits  of  the  question  concerning  the  mere  association  of 
the  sexes  while  under  instruction,  their  separation  is  being 
determined,  and  rightly  so,  through  the  pursuit  of  courses 
of  instruction  especially  adapted  to  the  preparation  of  mem- 
bers of  the  different  sexes  for  those  types  of  service  that 
they  can  best  render. 

The  separation  of  sexes  brought  about  in  this  way  neces- 
sarily extends  only  to  the  rooms  in  which  instruction  is 
given.  Whether  this  separation  should  extend  to  the  build- 
ing occupied  is  an  open  question,  best  settled  for  the  present 
by  expediency. 


2oo  The  Portland  Survey 


FOUR   MAIN  GROUPS  OR  TYPES  OF  SCHOOLS 

As  the  school  population  of  the  district  is  studied  indi- 
vidually and  classified  for  efficient  instruction  with  due  re- 
gard to  the  seven  factors  that  have  now  been  discussed,  this 
population  will  be  found  to  fall  into  four  fairly  distinct 
groups,  best  represented  under  the  names  of  the  types  of 
education  best  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  respective  groups. 
Such  a  representation  is  given  in  Table  XX,  on  page  201. 
The  estimated  numbers  of  each  group  can  be  considered  only 
approximate,  and  very  roughly  approximate,  at  that.  The 
exact  numbers,  which,  of  course,  will  be  subject  to  constant 
variation,  both  absolutely  and  relatively,  can  obviously  be 
determined  only  by  study  and  experience.  These  rough  es- 
timates are  made  up  on  the  basis  of  a  consideration  of  the 
numbers  of  children  of  various  ages  now  enrolled,  and  some 
experience  with  and  knowledge  of  the  proportionate  distri- 
bution of  pupils  where  plans  of  classification  and  provisions 
for  adequate,  differentiated  instruction,  similar  to  those 
here  recommended,  are  carried  out. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  total  estimates  fall  between  the 
total  number  of  children  of  school  age  in  the  district,  and 
the  present  total  enrollment  in  the  schools.  This  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  a  part,  but  only  a  part,  of  the  children  and 
youth  whose  ages  fall  outside  the  limits  established  for 
compulsory  attendance,  can  be  expected  to  enroll,  even 
though  the  most  advantageous  provisions  are  made  for 
them.  Just  what  this  part  will  prove  to  be,  of  course 
only  experience  can  show.  Whatever  it  is  at  the  outset,  it  is 
sure  to  increase  rapidly,  as  children  and  their  parents  come 
to  appreciate  the  new  advantages  being  offered  them. 

The  content  and  character  of  the  instruction  appropriate 
to  each  of  the  four  parts  into  which  the  whole  period  of 
instruction  is  divided  —  the  kindergarten,  elementary,  in- 
termediate, and  secondary  —  is  not  implied  with  sufficient 
definiteness  by  these  terms.  Without  going  into  unneces- 
sary detail,  the  scope  and  purpose  of  the  instruction  appro- 


Outline  of  Educational  Program 


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202  The  Portland  Survey 

priate  to  each  of  these  four  stages  of  progress  will  be 
outlined  and  its  adaptation  to  different  types  of  pupils 
indicated.1 

I.     THE  KINDERGARTEN 

For  children  at  the  kindergarten  stage,  that  is,  from  four 
up  to,  but  not  including,  six  years  of  age,  no  form  of  in- 
struction has  yet  been  worked  out  that  has  proved  so  suit- 
able as  that  which  goes  under  the  name  of  kindergarten. 
While  a  considerable  variety  of  procedure  is  now  found 
bearing  this  general  label,  the  same  purpose,  fundamental 
characteristics,  and  general  methods  are  found  in  all  kin- 
dergartens, and  are  too  well  known  to  need  any  detailed  de- 
scription here. 

The  provision  of  kindergarten  instruction  as  a  part  of 
the  public  school  system  is  chiefly  confined  to  cities  and  the 
larger  centers  of  population ;  it  is  almost  unknown  in  rural 
districts.  In  the  cities  and  larger  centers,  it  is  much  more 
common  in  the  East  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  country, 
though  perhaps  no  city  in  the  United  States  has  made  a 
more  conspicuous  success  in  providing  kindergarten  in- 
struction than  has  the  city  of  Los  Angeles.  There  can  be  no 
longer  any  question  of  the  value  of  kindergarten  instruction 
as  the  first  stage  in  city  public  school  systems ;  its  value  has 
been  demonstrated  abundantly  during  a  period  of  more  than 
twenty-five  years. 

^ 

Five  Thousand  Children  of  Kindergarten  Age 

According  to  the  latest  census  figures,  there  are  in  the 
Portland  school  district  somewhat  over  5,000  children  of 
kindergarten  age.  Were  kindergartens  opened  all  over  the 
city,  so  as  to  be  accessible  to  all  these  children,  it  is  scarcely 
probable  that  more  than  60  per  cent,  of  them  would  be 
enrolled  at  any  time,  and  the  maximum  enrollment 
might  not  exceed  50  or  even  40  per  cent.  Although 
1  See  also  Chapter  XI. 


Outline  of  Educational  Program  203 

eligible  for  admission  at  four,  many  would  not  enter  until 
five  or  even  older,  in  time  to  get  a  year  or  half-year  of  kin- 
dergarten instruction  before  entering  the  grades,  while 
others  would  pass  by  the  kindergarten  entirely.  The  con- 
tinuance in  membership  of  those  enrolled  would  also  prove 
much  less  permanent  than  that  in  the  grades.  Hence,  tak- 
ing these  things  into  consideration,  and  comparing  the  ex- 
perience of  places  in  which  the  kindergarten  is  a  part  of  the 
school  system,  the  above  outside  estimate  of  a  membership 
of  60  per  cent,  of  the  possible  maximum  —  that  is,  a  mem- 
bership of  3,000  —  seems  to  be  liberal,  with  50  per  cent.,  or 
2,500,  probably  nearer  what  experience  would  demonstrate. 
This  membership  might  be  considerably,  though  not  pro- 
portionately, reduced  by  requiring  an  age  of  four  and  one 
half,  or  even  of  five  years,  as  a  condition  of  admission. 

Cost  of  Kindergarten  Instruction 

Assuming  that  the  salaries  paid  kindergarten  teachers, 
specially  trained,  such  as  it  would  be  necessary  to  employ, 
were  approximately  on  the  same  basis  as  the  salaries  now 
paid  primary  grade  teachers,  the  annual  cost  per  kinder- 
garten pupil  might  be  somewhat  more  or  considerably  less 
than  the  cost  per  grade  pupil,  depending  upon  the  plans  on 
which  the  kindergartens  were  conducted. 

Two  teachers,  a  head  kindergartner  and  an  assistant,  can 
instruct  a  class  of  forty  to  fifty  kindergarten  children  as 
efficiently  as  can  a  single  grade  teacher  a  class  of  thirty-five 
or  forty  pupils.  A  single  session  of  two  and  one  half  hours 
is  sufficient  for  kindergarten  children.  Teachers  may  be 
required  to  teach  only  a  single  session  and  a  single  group 
of  children  in  a  day,  devoting  the  free  half-day  to  the  prepa- 
ration of  work  and  to  making  acquaintance  with  the  mothers 
and  the  home  life  of  their  pupils,  or  they  may  be  required 
to  teach  two  sessions,  with  a  different  set  of  children  at 
each  session.  Both  plans  are  in  use,  but  the  former  is  far 
preferable. 


2O4  The  Portland  Survey 

With  the  assistant  receiving  a  salary  one  half  to  two 
thirds  that  of  the  head  kindergartner,  as  would  be  appro- 
priate, and  with  kindergartners  teaching  only  one  group  of 
children  each  day,  the  cost  of  instruction  per  kindergarten 
pupil  would  be  more  —  probably  about  30  per  cent,  more, 
on  the  average  —  than  the  cost  of  instruction  per  grade 
pupil.  With  kindergartners  teaching  two  groups  of  pupils 
per  day,  other  conditions  remaining  the  same,  the  cost  per 
kindergarten  pupil  would  be  probably  35  per  cent,  less,  on 
the  average,  than  the  cost  per  grade  pupil. 

The  task  of  the  kindergartner  teaching  a  single  session  is 
unquestionably  somewhat  lighter  than  that  of  the  grade 
teacher  who  teaches  two  sessions,  each  as  long  as  the  kin- 
dergartner's  single  session;  while  the  task  of  the  kinder- 
gartner teaching  two  full  sessions  is  probably  somewhat 
more  trying  than  is  that  of  the  grade  teacher.  Were  this 
plan  of  having  kindergartners  teach  two  sessions  adopted, 
it  might  be  well  to  reduce  to  two  hours  the  length  of  the 
afternoon  session,  which  should  then  be  devoted  to  the 
younger  children. 

Whether  kindergarten  teachers  conduct  two  sessions  or 
one,  the  same  rooms,  as  far  as  practicable,  should  be  used 
for  two  sessions  daily ;  this  is  in  the  interest  of  the  econom- 
ical use  of  the  school  plant. 

Kindergartens  to  be  Provided  Eventually,  after  Making 
Other  Provisions  Now  More  Important  and  Pressing 

To  make  kindergarten  instruction  available  for  all  chil- 
dren of  the  district  of  kindergarten  age  is  a  practical  ideal 
which  the  public  should  approve,  and  toward  which  the 
school  authorities  may  well  work  as  rapidly  as  provision  for 
other  and  more  pressing  interests  will  permit.  Kindergar- 
tens are  not  of  equal  importance  in  all  parts  of  the  city. 
Where  home  conditions  are  unfavorable,  in  the  more  con- 
gested districts,  where  the  opportunities  for  outdoor  play 
under  wholesome  conditions  are  restricted,  there  the  kin- 


Outline  of  Educational  Program  205 

dergarten  will  render  its  largest  service;  and  in  such  sec- 
tions it  should  be  established  first.  'But  the  establishment 
of  kindergartens,  even  in  such  sections  as  these,  should  wait 
on  the  provision  of  extensive,  varied,  and  relatively  expen- 
sive opportunities  for  the  more  efficient  education  of  at  least 
4,000  youth  now  in  the  schools,  and  of  an  equally  large 
number  who  have  left  the  schools  because  of  the  lack  of 
instruction  suited  to  their  needs. 


2.     ELEMENTARY   INSTRUCTION 

The  subjects  of  instruction  appropriate  to  the  elementary 
stage  of  education,  covering  normally  six  grades  and  six 
years,  and  to  be  pursued,  for  the  most  part,  by  children 
from  six  to  twelve  years  of  age,  are  the  following: 

1.  The  language  arts 

(a)  Reading 

(b)  Writing 

(c)  Spelling  and  composition,  oral  and  written 

2.  Arithmetic 

3.  Geography 

4.  History  of  the  United  States 

5.  Hygiene,  physical  training,  and  physiology 

6.  Drawing,  and  elementary  manual  training 

7.  Nature  study 

8.  Vocal  music 

In  the  above  list,  there  can  be  little  question  that  the  first 
two  subjects,  the  language  arts  and  arithmetic,  are  placed  in 
the  order  of  their  relative  importance  for  practically  all  chil- 
dren. With  some  little  hesitancy,  geography  and  history 
are  given  third  and  fourth  places  respectively ;  regarding  the 
relative  importance  of  the  four  remaining  subjects  there 
may  well  be  differences  of  opinion,  and  even  of  fact,  de- 
pending upon  circumstances.  With  the  exception  of  his- 
tory, all  the  subjects  here  scheduled  are  included  in  the 


206  The  Portland  Survey 

present  course  of  study  for  the  first  six  grades.  Sufficient 
time  for  this  subject  might  well  be  taken  from  the  present 
allotment  to  physiology,  —  two  hours  and  five  minutes  per 
week,  —  which  is  excessive. 

The  desirability  of  important  variations  from  present 
practices,  respecting  both  the  content  and  methods  of  treat- 
ment of  principal  subjects,  have  already  been  implied  in  the 
criticisms  of  the  present  course  of  study  and  methods  of 
instruction  given  in  the  preceding  chapter.  Only  a  brief 
positive  outline  of  the  principal  contents  and  methods  of 
treatment  of  these  subjects  need  be  given  here. 

The  Language  Arts 

The  several  language  arts  should  be  closely  correlated 
with  each  other,  much  more  closely  than  seems  to  be  the 
present  prevailing  practice.  The  learning  of  these  arts 
should  also  be  much  more  closely  correlated  with  other  sub- 
jects, especially  with  geography,  history,  nature  study,  and 
drawing.  Reading  should  involve  not  merely  the  learning 
to  read  fluently  and  intelligently,  which  is  now  admirably 
achieved  in  the  first  two  or  three  grades,  but  the  reading  of 
a  large  amount  of  good  literature,  the  formation  of  taste 
for  good  reading,  and  the  habit  of  reading  with  discrimi- 
nation. From  three  to  four  times  as  many  books  as  are  now 
prescribed  for  the  nine  grades  can  well  be  read  and  studied 
thoroughly  in  six  grades. 

The  use  of  language  in  written  composition  involves  pen- 
manship, spelling,  and  a  practical  knowledge  of  correct  lan- 
guage forms,  chiefly  punctuation  and  capitalization.  But 
all  these  forms  are  merely  means  to  an  end  —  the  effective 
and  accurate  expression  of  ideas  and  feelings  —  and  should 
be  so  taught  and  so  learned.  This  means  that  content 
should  always  be  dominant,  form  subordinate,  in  all  in- 
struction in  composition.  Only  in  subordination  to  content 
does  form  possess  any  real  value.  This  is  as  true  in  oral 
as  in  written  composition. 


Outline  of  Educational  Program  207 

The  Essentials  of  Arithmetic 

The  essentials  of  arithmetic  involve  merely  the  mastery 
of  the  four  fundamental  operations  in  the  use  of  whole 
numbers  and  fractions,  common  and  decimal.  The  process 
of  acquiring  this  mastery  should  be  made  as  concrete  as 
possible,  through  the  use  of  suitable  objects  and  graphic 
illustrations.  Constant  and  abundant  applications  of  num- 
ber and  arithmetical  processes  should  be  made  in  the  solu- 
tion of  problems  whose  facts  and  conditions  come  within 
the  familiar  experience  of  pupils ;  this  work  should  involve 
practical  knowledge  of  the  standard  tables  of  measurement 
in  general  use.  Beyond  the  foregoing,  the  only  work  in 
arithmetic  that  is  desirable  in  this  elementary  stage  of  edu- 
cation —  and  this  by  no  means  essential  at  this  time  —  is  a 
practical  understanding  of  that  form  of  decimals  known  as 
percentage,  and  some  practice  in  the  applications  of  per- 
centage to  simple  problems  in  interest,  taxes,  and  discounts. 

Practical  Geography 

The  geography  of  this  elementary  period  should  have  to 
do  primarily  with  the  United  States,  particularly  with  the 
great  Northwest  and  the  Pacific  Coast ;  secondarily  with  the 
world,  with  most  attention  to  those  countries  and  peoples 
with  whom  we  have,  or  are  soon  to  have,  the  closest  com- 
mercial relations  —  Canada,  the  countries  of  Europe,  South 
and  Central  America,  Japan,  and  China.  This  subject 
should  develop  naturally,  out  of  much  first-hand  study  of  the 
wealth  of  geographic  phenomena  of  Portland  and  vicinity 
—  beginning  in  the  third,  even  to  some  extent,  in  connection 
with  nature  study,  in  the  second  grade,  and  continuing 
throughout  every  grade.  This  study  should  be  made  prac- 
tical, concrete,  and  comprehensible  to  the  children  through 
the  use  of  abundant  illustrative  material,  pictures,  and  speci- 
mens, and  also  through  the  reading  of  geographical  read- 
ers, as  well  as  through  the  study  of  regular  texts.  No  other 
subject  possesses  greater  possibilities  of  interest. 


208  The  Portland  Survey 

Historical  Biography 

During  this  elementary  period,  every  child  should  become 
familiar  with  the  names  and  learn  something  of  the  lives 
and  achievements  of  the  great  characters,  men  and  women, 
who  have  played  the  leading  parts  in  the  history  of  our 
country.  Through  the  study  of  these  characters,  much  will 
be  learned  of  the  significant  events  and  movements  in  our 
country's  development.  This  study  should  begin,  even  in 
the  lowest  grades,  with  stories  of  the  great  historic  char- 
acters —  Columbus,  Boone,  Washington,  Lincoln,  and  a 
score  of  others.  Easy  historical  readers,  of  which  there  are 
a  few  good  ones,  may  be  used  in  the  third  and  fourth  grades, 
but  should  not  entirely  supersede  oral  stories.  Suitable  for 
fifth  and  sixth  grades,  there  are  several  good  books  that 
combine  successfully  biography  and  a  systematic  presenta- 
tion of  the  most  important  features  of  our  country's  history. 


Nature  Study,  Hygiene,  and  Other  Subjects 

Nature  study,  based  entirely  upon  the  direct  observation 
of  natural  phenomena,  and  closely  correlated  with  school 
gardening,  geography,  drawing,  literature,  and  composi- 
tion, should  receive  some  attention  in  every  grade.  As 
was  pointed  out  in  Chapter  VII,  a  course  rich  in  the  ele- 
ments of  the  different  sciences,  and  culminating  in  specific 
instruction  in  agriculture  and  general  science  in  the  upper 
grades,  should  be  marked  features  of  the  elementary  school 
work  in  Portland. 

The  importance  and  character  of  instruction  to  be  given 
in  hygiene  and  physical  training  is  discussed  in  Chapter 
XIV,  pages  361  to  363,  and  will  not  be  taken  up  here. 
The  remaining  elementary  subjects  —  drawing,  sewing, 
cooking,  school  gardening,  manual  work,  and  vocal  music  — 
are  treated  separately  in  Chapter  X,  and  for  the  same  reason 
will  not  be  considered  here. 


Outline  of  Educational  Program  209 

The  Desirable  and  the  Essential  Distinguished 

The  subjects  of  study  briefly  outlined  above  are  those 
best  suited  to  occupy  the  attention  of  the  large  majority  of 
children  from  six  to  twelve  years  of  age ;  some  will  be  ready 
to  pass  on  to  the  next,  the  intermediate  stage  of  education, 
a  little  earlier;  others  will  need  to  continue  a  little  longer 
in  this  elementary  stage.  The  subjects  here  outlined  form 
the  best,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  essential  basis  for  the 
work  of  the  intermediate  stage.  But  only  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent are  these  subjects  essential;  indeed,  only  a  knowledge 
of  the  language  arts  and  of  arithmetic,  and  that  not  as 
thorough  or  as  extensive  as  was  outlined  above,  is  essential 
in  preparation  for  successful  work  of  the  intermediate  stage. 
Provided  these  barest  essentials  have  been  acquired,  even 
quite  imperfectly,  a  child  should  not  be  kept  on  this  ele- 
mentary work  long  after  the  normal  age  for  taking  up  in- 
termediate work  has  been  reached  —  that  is,  not  beyond 
thirteen,  or,  in  extreme  cases  of  immaturity,  fourteen  years 
of  age. 

3.     THE   INTERMEDIATE   STAGE 

With  the  intermediate  stage  of  education,  to  be  entered 
upon  normally  by  the  majority  of  children  at  twelve,  by 
some  a  year  earlier,  by  others  a  year  later,  come  the  obvious 
beginnings  of  differentiation.  The  children  have  been  dif- 
ferentiating themselves  throughout  the  elementary  stage; 
they  have  been  manifesting  and  developing  their  individual 
capacities  and  interests;  the  term  of  compulsory  schooling 
will  soon  be  completed ;  the  question  of  the  probable  future 
arises,  and  should  be  raised  seriously,  concerning  each  child. 
While  no  attempt  should  be  made  at  this  stage  to  predict 
definitely,  much  less  to  determine,  the  future  of  any  child, 
it  requires  but  the  exercise  of  common  sense  to  see  at  least 
the  general  direction  in  which  the  future  of  many  children 
must  lie. 

Such  indications  of  differentiating  needs  as  now  begin  to 


2io  The  Portland  Survey 

manifest  themselves  demand  corresponding  beginnings  of 
differentiation  in  the  subject-matter  and  method  of  instruc- 
tion. Instead  of  a  single  course,  which  all  pupils  must  pur- 
sue entire,  there  should  be  now  offered  several  courses,  iden- 
tical or  similar  in  respect  to  at  least  one  half  their  content, 
but  distinctly  differentiated  in  respect  to  a  single  subject,  or 
a  small  group  of  allied  subjects.  Each  of  these  courses 
should  consist  of  three  grades,  and  should  involve  normally 
three  years'  work.  While  they  should  all  be  planned  to  lead 
into  the  still  further  differentiated  courses  of  the  secondary 
period,  certain  of  them  should  be  so  immediately  practical 
that  pupils  terminating  their  schooling  with  the  completion 
of  the  compulsory  attendance  period,  which  corresponds 
with  the  normal  completion  of  this  intermediate  stage, 
would  be  equipped  with  a  considerable  degree  of  specific 
preparation  for  definite  service. 

The  intermediate  courses,  leading  directly  into  secondary 
courses  similar  to  the  present  high  school  courses,  would 
cover  work  equivalent  to  that  of  the  first  high  school  year, 
as  at  present  arranged.  This  arrangement  reduces  by  one 
grade  the  length  of  the  present  grade  and  high  school 
courses,  and  shortens  the  school  work  from  thirteen  to 
twelve  years.  The  equivalent  of  a  grade  can  be  readily  and 
most  advantageously  saved  by  eliminating  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  abstract  arithmetic,  and  nearly  all  of  the  tech- 
nical grammar,  subjects  which  now  consume  one  third  of 
the  time,  and  much  more  than  one  third  of  the  energy,  of 
both  pupils  and  teachers  in  the  three  higher  grammar 
grades. 

Literary  and  P re-vocational  Courses 

Courses  appropriate  to  this  intermediate  period  are  of 
two  general  types,  which  may  be  designated  as  literary  and 
pre-vocational.  As  these  names  suggest,  those  of  the 
former  type  are  more  abstract,  bookish,  and  theoretical, 
while  those  of  the  latter  are  more  concrete  and  immediately 
practical.  The  literary  courses  are  more  closely  allied,  in 


Outline  of  Educational  Program  211 

content  and  method,  to  the  present  grammar  and  the  first 
year  of  the  literary  high  school  courses. 

The  subjects  composing  the  literary  courses  should  be  as 
follows : * 

1.  English:    Literature,  written  and  oral  composi- 
tion, and  the  elements  of  grammar 

2.  Mathematics:    Arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry 

3.  History:     A    more    thorough    study    of    United 
States  history  than  that  provided  for  the  elementary 
period;    also  a  study  of  European  history,  especially 
English,   in  its  closer  relations  to  the  history  of  the 
United  States;  two  years 

4.  Civics:    Government  of  city,  state,  and  nation; 
one  year 

5.  Geography:    Continued  one  year  from  the  ele- 
mentary period 

6.  Elementary  science:    A  continuation  and  system- 
atization  of  the  nature  study  of  the  elementary  period 

7.  Current  events 

8.  Hygiene :   Personal  and  community  hygiene ;  also 
physical  training 

9.  Languages:    A  modern  language;    two  or  three 
years 

10.  Drawing:  Free-hand  and  mechanical 
n.    Manual  training 

12.  Household  arts :   Sewing  and  cooking 

13.  Vocal  music 

Work  Adapted  to  Individual  Needs 

Of  this  rather  formidable  array  of  subjects,  it  should  be 
noted  that  civics  and  geography  are  scheduled  for  one  year 

1  See  also  the  outlines  for  general,  commercial,  and  vocational  courses, 
printed  in  Chapter  XI. 


212  The  Portland  Survey 

only,  with  history,  and  possibly  the  modern  language,  for 
two  years  only;  while  to  each  of  several  other  subjects,  as 
elementary  science,  current  events,  hygiene,  drawing,  man- 
ual training,  household  arts,  and  vocal  music,  not  more  than 
two  exercises  per  week  should  be  given.  Moreover,  no  in- 
dividual pupil  should  be  held,  contrary  to  his  best  interests, 
to  the  study  of  all  these  subjects ;  on  the  other  hand,  some 
specialization  in  accordance  with  a  pupil's  talents,  interests, 
or  probable  future,  should  be  permitted  and  encouraged. 
For  example,  not  all  pupils  pursuing  a  literary  course  should 
take  up  a  modern  language ;  not  everyone  should  necessarily 
take  either  manual  training  or  household  arts;  even  the 
whole  course  in  mathematics  might  well  be  omitted  by  some ; 
while  still  others  might  devote  more  than  the  average  time 
to  any  one  of  these  or  of  the  other  subjects.  The  subjects 
here  indicated  should  be  used  to  serve  the  individual  inter- 
ests of  pupils.  The  prime  object  of  this  stage  of  education 
is  that  every  pupil  in  it  be  taught  most  effectively ;  not  that 
this,  or  any  other  array  of  subjects,  be  mastered  by  every 
pupil. 

It  is  entirely  feasible  to  conduct  a  school  in  this  way.  To 
be  sure,  it  cannot  be  done  by  routine;  the  exact  work  of 
every  pupil  cannot  be  predetermined  years  in  advance.  To 
educate  pupils  intelligently,  not  merely  to  see  that  the  pre- 
determined school  mechanism  runs  smoothly,  requires  the 
constant  study,  thought,  and  wise  judgment  of  both  teach- 
ers and  principals.  But  study,  thought,  judgment,  and  the 
assumption  of  educational  responsibility  ought  to  be  funda- 
mental in  the  demands  made  upon  everyone  immediately 
concerned  in  the  education  of  children  and  youth. 

Purpose  of  the  P re-vocational  Courses 

The  pre-vocational  courses  appropriate  to  this  interme- 
diate period  should  serve  two  ends,  not  dissimilar  in  their 
demands:  (i)  they  should  prepare  for  the  vocational 
courses  of  the  secondary  period  those  pupils  who  continue 


Outline  of  Educational  Program  213 

in  school  beyond  the  intermediate  period;  and  (2)  they 
should  give  those  pupils  who  conclude  their  schooling1  with 
this  period  some  practical  and  definite  preparation  for  en- 
trance into  some  particular  field  of  usefulness.  These  pre- 
vocational  courses  should  be  distinguished  from  each  other, 
as  well  as  from  the  literary  courses,  by  the  immediate  prac- 
tical study  which  should  be  prominent  in  each  one  of  them. 
These  practical  studies,  to  meet  Portland's  needs,  should 
look  toward  at  least  five  radically  different  types  of  service, 
as  follows : 

1.  Commercial 

(a)  Clerical    service,    involving    bookkeeping 

and  typewriting 

(b)  Selling 

2.  Manufacturing  and  mechanical 

(a)  Woodworking  trades  —  particularly  gen- 

eral carpentry  and  cabinet-making 

(b)  Metal-working  trades 

(c)  Electrical  trades  . 

(d)  Sewing  trades 

3.  Agricultural 

4.  Home-making 

5.  Printing  and  bookbinding 

Preparation  looking  toward  the  above  five  general  types 
of  service  will  give  rise  to  at  least  five  pre-vocational 
courses,  and  may  give  rise  to  several  more.  Each  one  of 
these  pre-vocational  courses  will  involve  the  study  of  the 
following  subjects,  made  concrete  and  practical  and  corre- 
lated with  the  practical  subject  that  distinguishes  the  course : 

1.  English:   Composition  and  literature 

2.  Mathematics:    Chiefly  arithmetic,  applied 

3.  Geography  and  history :  With  particular  reference 

to  commerce  and  industry 


214  The  Portland  Survey 

4.  Civics:   Government  of  city,  state,  and  nation 

5.  Drawing:   Mechanical,  free-hand,  design 

6.  Hygiene  and  physical  training 

7.  Elementary  science 

8.  Current  events 

Pupils'  Capacities  and  Interests  Tested  in  the  Intermediate 

Stage 

In  addition  to  serving  definitely  the  varied  needs  of  indi- 
vidual boys  and  girls,  as  these  have  become  evident  previous 
to  entrance  upon  this  intermediate  period,  the  variety  and 
range  of  instruction  offered  in  the  literary  and  pre-voca- 
tional  courses  of  this  period  should  serve  to  test  the  interests 
and  to  bring  out  the  special  capacities  of  most  of  those  pu- 
pils whose  educational  needs  have  not  previously  declared 
themselves,  so  that  when  the  work  of  the  secondary  period 
is  reached,  it  will  be  possible  to  determine  intelligently,  in 
the  case  of  most  pupils,  what  their  secondary  course  of 
study  should  be.  While  considerable  beginnings  in  differ- 
entiation have  been  made  in  this  intermediate  period,  so 
much  of  the  instruction  has  been  essentially  common  to  all 
the  courses  —  the  English,  arithmetic,  history,  and  geog- 
raphy —  that  any  pupil  whose  capacity  and  interest  make  it 
advisable  can  change  his  course  at  any  time  during  this 
intermediate  period,  or  even  at  the  beginning  of  the  second- 
ary period,  and  adjust  himself  without  great  difficulty  to 
any  other  course  that  promises  greater  benefit  to  him. 

4.     THE   SECONDARY   SCHOOL 

Secondary  Instruction  Determined  by  Length  of  Time  Pupil 
Will  Continue  in  School 

The  instruction  of  the  secondary  period  must  carry  much 
further  the  differentiation  begun  in  the  intermediate  period, 
in  order  to  meet  the  further  differentiated  needs  of  the 


Outline  of  Educational  Program  215 

youth  of  this  secondary  period.  The  length  of  time  that  a 
pupil  will  probably  continue  in  school  now  becomes  one  of 
the  most  important  considerations  in  determining  what  that 
pupil's  instruction  should  be.  Indeed,  because  the  probable 
length  of  a  pupil's  schooling  is  usually,  to  a  large  extent, 
the  resultant  of  that  pupil's  capacity  and  interests,  as  well 
as  of  his  economic  circumstances,  this  factor  of  time  may 
safely  be  given  first  consideration  in  determining,  in  a  gen- 
eral way,  the  character  of  the  course  of  instruction  that  will 
prove  most  beneficial. 

Preparatory  and  Vocational  Courses  of  Wide  Range 

Hence  it  is  that  the  wide  range  of  secondary  courses  of 
instruction,  adequate  to  the  diverse  needs  of  thousands  of 
youth  in  this  secondary  period,  naturally  fall  into  two 
groups,  which  may  be  designated  respectively  as  preparatory 
and  vocational.  The  former  group  of  courses,  as  their  sug- 
gested designation  implies,  should  prepare  for  admission  to 
the  work  of  higher  institutions  —  colleges,  universities,  nor- 
mal schools,  and  other  schools  for  advanced  special  train- 
ing —  those  students  who  are  to  continue  their  education  be- 
yond this  secondary  period.  The  latter  group  of  courses, 
the  vocational,  should  prepare  for  immediate,  definite  serv- 
ice —  through  a  wide  range  of  specifically  practical  in- 
struction, adapted  on  the  one  hand  to  the  wide  range  of 
individual  capacity  and  interest,  and  on  the  other  to  the  di- 
versified needs  of  the  community  —  those  whose  schooling 
is  to  terminate  with  this  secondary  period. 

All  complete  courses  of  this  period  should  be  so  planned 
as  to  call  normally  for  three  years  of  work.  Yet  they 
should  be  flexible  enough  in  arrangement  and  administra- 
tion to  meet  individual  capacity  and  conditions,  especially 
permitting  and  encouraging  part-time  work,  where  circum- 
stances make  this  necessary,  and  in  such  cases  extending 
over  a  longer  period  than  three  years.  The  vocational 
courses  should  be  so  arranged  that  pupils  who  leave  them  at 


216  Tlie  Portland  Survey 

any  point,  of  necessity  or  othenvise,  will  find  themselves 
prepared,  in  proportion  to  the  time  and  effort  that  they  have 
so  far  devoted  to  their  training,  to  render  service  in  their 
chosen  field. 

Content  and  Purpose  of  Preparatory  Courses 

The  content  of  the  preparatory  courses  will  be  determined 
by  the  admission  requirements  imposed  by  the  higher  insti- 
tutions for  whose  work  these  courses  are  to  prepare.  Such 
institutions  generally  are  now  tending,  much  more  than  a 
few  years  ago,  to  make  their  requirements  quite  general, 
leaving  to  secondary  schools,  and  to  candidates  seeking  ad- 
mission, much  discretion  regarding  the  combination  of  sub- 
jects to  be  studied.  However,  to  meet  general  requirements 
of  admission  to  these  higher  institutions  and  to  afford  a 
range  of  subjects  suited  to  the  varying  capacities  and  inter- 
ests of  pupils,  it  will  be  necessary  that  the  following  five 
distinct  fields  of  study  be  provided  in  the  preparatory 
courses  and  that  the  preparation  of  any  individual  pupil 
consist  chiefly  of  work  within  these  fields : 

1.  English:   Literature  and  composition 

2.  Mathematics:  Algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonom- 

etry 

3.  Science:    Physics,  chemistry,  and  the  biological 

sciences 

4.  History:    Ancient,  medieval,  modern,  American 

5.  Languages :  Modern  languages  and  Latin 

Instruction  in  mechanical  and  free-hand  drawing  and  de- 
sign, manual  training,  and  household  arts  should  also  be 
provided. 

All  the  above  fields  and  subjects  of  study  are  now  in- 
cluded in  the  high  school  curriculum.  By  selecting  and 
combining  in  varying  proportions  from  these  subjects,  an 
indefinite  number  of  "  courses  "  may  be  made,  as  the  present 


Outline  of  Educational  Program  217 

so-called  English,  Latin,  German,  scientific,  and  college 
preparatory  courses  have  been  made.  The  making  of  such 
courses  should  be  largely  individual,  and  determined  merely 
by  convenience ;  they  should  aid  and  not  hinder  the  adapta- 
tion of  work  to  the  individual  needs  of  every  pupil.  In 
practice  there  must  be  as  many  "  courses  "  as  there  are  pu- 
pils. True,  many  of  these  "  courses  "  will  be  identical ;  but 
identity  of  courses  should  always  arise  as  a  resultant  of 
adapting  work  to  individual  needs;  it  should  never  be  a 
primary  fact  to  which  pupils  must  adjust  themselves.1 

Courses  of  Study  Must  Change  Constantly 

The  range  of  instruction  that  has  been  outlined  to  meet 
the  educational  needs  of  the  children  and  youth  in  the  dif- 
ferent stages  of  their  growth  must  be  taken  as  only  roughly, 
approximately,  and  temporarily  adequate.  Indeed,  these 
outlines  may  well  be  considered  as  merely  tentative  and 
suggestive.  It  is  not  for  anyone,  either  without  or  within 
a  school  system,  to  determine  in  detail  the  subjects  of  in- 
struction and  the  combination  of  such  subjects;  this  must 
be  the  inalienable  and  unceasing  function  of  teachers,  prin- 
cipals, supervisors,  and  superintendent,  working  together  to 
understand  and  to  meet  the  ever-varying  needs  of  their 
pupils,  to  fit  them  for  the  ever-varying  demands  of  society 
for  worthy  service.  Courses  of  study  must  be  constantly 
changing.  A  fixed  course  of  study  is  indisputable  evidence 
of  the  neglect  or  surrender  of  the  primary  function  of  a 
true  teacher  —  the  discriminating  education  of  individuality. 

Promotion  Must  be  Determined  Not  by  What  a  Pupil  Has 
Learned,  but  by  What  He  Needs  to  Learn 

Just  as  the  present  scheme  of  promotion  in  the  elementary 
schools,  in  complete  harmony  with  the  rigidly  mechanical, 
all-dominating  system,  grows  naturally,  almost  inevitably, 

1  For  a  further  discussion  of  the  vocational  courses,  see  Chapters  X  and  XI. 


218  The  Portland  Survey 

out  of  that  system,  so  the  advancement  of  pupils  from  grade 
to  grade  and  from  stage  to  stage  in  the  educational  program 
that  has  been  here  outlined  must  be  in  harmony  with  the 
principles  underlying  this  program.  The  most  fundamental 
principle  of  all,  in  this  connection,  is  that  instruction,  both 
in  content  and  in  method,  must  be  adapted  to  pupils'  needs, 
to  individual  needs ;  not  the  instruction  that  a  pupil  has  had, 
but  the  instruction  that  he  needs;  not  what  a  pupil  has 
learned,  but  what  he  most  needs  to  learn,  must  determine 
the  placing  of  that  pupil. 

Carried  into  practice,  this  means  that  when  a  pupil  has 
reached  in  maturity  and  need  the  intermediate  period,  he  is 
to  be  advanced  to  instruction  appropriate  to  that  period, 
whether  he  has  completed  the  normal  work  of  the  elemen- 
tary period  or  not ;  it  means  that  when  a  pupil  has  reached 
in  maturity  and  need  the  secondary  period,  he  is  to  be  ad- 
vanced to  instruction  appropriate  to  that  period,  whether  he 
has  completed  the  normal  work  of  the  intermediate  period 
or  not.  If  such  pupils  are  incapable  of  taking  up  work 
usually  given  in  the  intermediate  or  in  the  secondary  pe- 
riods, then  work  adapted  to  their  needs  must  be  provided. 
This  is  the  simple  principle  that  must  prevail,  that  a  child 
in  the  intermediate,  or  a  youth  in  the  secondary  stage  of 
development,  belongs  with  other  children  in  the  inter- 
mediate or  with  other  youth  in  the  secondary  stage  of 
development.  Instruction  must  always  fit  the  stage  of  devel- 
opment, even  to  the  individual  needs  in  that  stage  of  de- 
velopment; elementary  instruction  is  not  suitable  for 
children  of  the  intermediate  stage,  nor  is  intermediate 
instruction  suitable  for  youth  of  the  secondary  stage. 

The  converse  of  the  above  proposition  is  almost  equally 
true ;  intermediate  instruction  is  not  suitable  for  children  of 
the  elementary,  nor  is  secondary  instruction  suitable  for 
children  of  the  intermediate  stage.  In  practice,  the  number 
of  pupils  in  danger  of  being  advanced  too  rapidly  is  small 
compared  with  the  number  in  danger  of  being  kept  back 
in  stages  of  instruction  below  their  needs.  When  courses 


Outline  oj  Educational  Program  219 

of  study  are  given  breadth  and  depth,  as  well  as  length, 
there  will  be  found  few  children  whose  education  cannot 
most  profitably  be  given  in  that  stage  of  development  to 
which  they  belong. 

Within  the  different  stages,  pupils  must  be  grouped  into 
classes  for  instruction  in  accordance  with  their  needs,  those 
whose  needs  of  instruction  are  similar  being  grouped  to- 
gether. Those  whose  needs  differ  materially,  whether  in 
respect  to  content  of  subject-matter,  method,  or  rate  of 
progress,  should  not  be  grouped  together.  Regrouping 
should  take  place  whenever  pupils'  changing  needs  require  it. 

The  Execution  of  the  Plans  Outlined  Worthy  of  Real 
Teachers  and  Principals 

It  must  be  obvious  that  the  execution  of  plans  such  as 
these  plans  of  advancing  pupils  and  of  fitting  work  to  their 
individual  needs,  can  be  reduced  to  no  mechanism;  hence 
they  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  execute  themselves,  with 
a  modicum  of  attention  and  inspection  from  time  to  time. 
The  success  of  such  plans  will  depend  upon  the  constant  and 
appreciative  study  of  pupils,  keen  insight  into  their  indi- 
vidual characters,  the  exercise  of  sound  judgment,  and  the 
willingness  to  assume  large  educational  responsibilities,  on 
the  part  both  of  teachers  and  principals,  under  the  wise 
guidance  of  supervisors  and  superintendents.  Such  de- 
mands are,  indeed,  difficult  to  meet,  but  they  are  worthy  of 
real  teachers  and  principals.  No  really  competent  and 
worthy  teacher  or  principal  will  shirk  such  service  as  this 
or  declare  such  plans  as  these  impossible.  Indeed,  there 
could  be  devised  no  surer  way  of  distinguishing  the  compe- 
tent and  worthy  from  the  incompetent  and  unworthy  than 
this  setting  before  teachers  and  principals  a  real  problem 
of  education,  and  giving  them  freedom  and  responsibility, 
under  general  leadership,  to  solve  it. 

Principals  should  be  charged  primarily  with  the  responsi- 
bility of  seeing  not  only  that  all  pupils  who  ought  to  be  en- 


22O  The  Portland  Survey 

rolled  with  them  are  enrolled,  and  that  the  pupils  actually 
enrolled  in  their  schools  are  getting  individually  the  kind  of 
treatment  they  need,  but  they  should  also  be  charged  with 
responsibility,  to  the  extent  of  their  control  and  influence, 
for  the  educational  welfare  of  the  children  and  youth  of 
their  respective  districts  who  do  not  belong  in  their  schools. 
When  a  pupil's  educational  need  demands  that  he  pass  on 
from  the  elementary  to  the  intermediate  stage  of  instruc- 
tion, or  from  the  intermediate  to  the  secondary,  it  is  the 
principal's  function  to  see  that  the  passage  is  made  success- 
fully, even  when  this  carries  the  pupil  beyond  the  princi- 
pal's official  jurisdiction.  No  arbitrary  limits  should  bound 
the  service  of  principals  or  teachers.  Cooperation  should 
prevail  in  every  direction  throughout  the  system. 

SUMMARY    OF    RECOMMENDATIONS    FOR    AN    EDUCATIONAL 
PROGRAM    ADAPTED   TO    LOCAL    NEEDS 

1.  In  simplest  terms,  Portland's  educational  problem  is 
this:     What  shall  be  done  for  the  forty-three  thousand 
children  and  youth  of  the  city  that  their  value  to  themselves 
and  to  the  community  may  be  increased  to  the  largest  pos- 
sible extent? 

2.  Always  the  first  and  most  important  step  in  the  solu- 
tion of  this  problem  is  an  appreciative  understanding  of  the 
capacities,  interests,  possibilities,  of  each  one  of  these  forty- 
three  thousand  individuals. 

3.  Such  an  understanding  can  be  gained  by  no  one,  by  no 
small  number  of  persons ;  this  is  the  great  responsibility  of 
the    nine   hundred   teachers,    principals,    supervisors,    and 
superintendents. 

4.  An  adequate  educational  program  for  the  community 
must  be  based  on  the  individual  needs  of  the  boys  and  girls 
to  be  educated  and  on  the  community  needs  for  service. 

5.  Such  a  program  does  not  call  for  individual  instruc- 
tion, to  any  considerable  extent ;  it  does  call  for  the  grouping 


Outline  of  Educational  Program  221 

of  pupils  into  schools  and  classes  in  accordance  with  simi- 
larity of  needs. 

6.  Seven  factors  must  be  considered  in  determining  ade- 
quate grouping  of  pupils  for  instruction : 

(a)  Maturity,  most  readily  but  only  roughly  indi- 
cated by  age 

(b)  Knowledge,  and  ability  to  learn  and  to  do 

(c)  Probable  time  to  be  devoted  to  schooling 

(d)  Natural  capacity  and  interest 

(e)  Command  of  the  English  language 

(f)  Marked  defects,  abnormalities  and  subnormali- 
ties,  physical  and  mental 

(g)  Sex 

7.  The  significance  of  age : 

(a)  Children  under  six  are  educable,  and  suitable 
provision  should  be  made  for  them 

(b)  Children  of  a  greater  age  range  than  three  or 
four   years    cannot   be    advantageously    instructed    in 
classes  together;    10  per  cent,  of  the  pupils  in  the  ele- 
mentary  grades   in   Portland  need   reclassification   on 
account  of  age  alone 

(c)  Over  age  is  the  resultant  of  one  or  more  of  a 
large  number  of  diverse  causes.     All  over-age  pupils 
should  be  studied,  and  suitable  treatment  applied.     It 
is  still  more  important  to  anticipate  and  prevent  the 
development  of  over-age  pupils 

8.  Knowledge  and  ability  respecting  conventional  school 
subjects  is  a  most  useful  criterion  for  determining  appro- 
priate classification  and  instruction,  but  it  is  not  the  only  one. 

9.  As  all  public  instruction  should  be  designed  to  fit  the 
recipient  of  it  for  largest  usefulness,  the  time  available  for 
such  instruction  must  be  an  important  factor  in  determining 
what  that  instruction  shall  be. 


222  The  Portland  Survey 

10.  Instruction  is  effective  only  as  it  is  adapted  to  the 
capacity  and  interest  of  the  recipient. 

1 1.  Ignorance  of  the  English  language  is  a  handicap  that 
calls  for  separate  classification  and  special  instruction. 

12.  Markedly  abnormal  and  subnormal  children  should 
be  segregated,  both  in  their  own  interest  and  in  the  interest 
of  normal  children. 

13.  Separate  classification  according  to  sex  is  involved 
indirectly  in  carrying  on  instruction  in  preparation  for  fields 
of  service  peculiarly  appropriate  to  the  one  sex  or  the  other. 

14.  The  school  population  falls  into  four  large,  fairly 
distinct  groups,  best  represented  under  the  names  of  the 
types  of  education  best  suited  to  the  respective  group  needs : 

(a)  The  kindergarten  group 

(b)  The  elementary  group 

(c)  The  intermediate  group 

(d)  The  secondary  group 

15.  Instruction  for  each  group  must  be  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  the  children  or  youth  of  that  group: 

(a)  The  kindergarten  group  requires  the  best  form 
of  kindergarten  instruction 

(b)  The  elementary  group  needs  instruction  in : 

(1)  The    language    arts:    Reading,    writing 

spelling,  and  composition 

(2)  Arithmetic 

(3)  Geography 

(4)  History  of  the  United  States 

(5)  Hygiene,    physical    training,    and    physi- 

ology 

(6)  Drawing,  and  elementary  manual  training. 

(7)  Nature  study 

(8)  Vocal  music 


Outline  of  Educational  Program  223 

(c)  The  intermediate  group  requires  differentiated 
courses  of  instruction : 

1 i )  Literary 

(2)  Pre-vocationaL 

(d)  The  secondary  group  requires  still  further  dif- 
ferentiated courses: 

1 i )  Preparatory. 

(2)  Vocational 

1 6.  Courses  of  study  must  change  constantly  to  meet  the 
ever-changing  needs  of  pupils  and  to  fit  for  the  ever-varying 
service  that  society  demands. 

17.  Promotion  must  be  based  not  on  what  a  pupil  has 
learned,  but  on  what  he  needs  to  learn. 

1 8.  The  successful  execution  of  this  program  demands 
the  assumption  of  large  educational  responsibility  by  teach- 
ers and  principals ;  it  calls  for  appreciative  study,  the  exer- 
cise of  keen  insight  and  sound  judgment,  and  the  unfailing 
cooperation,  under  wise  leadership,  of  all. 


CHAPTER    X1 

THE  PRESENT  OFFERING  OF  THE  SCHOOL  DIS- 
TRICT   IN    VOCATIONAL    STUDIES,    WITH 
SUGGESTIONS  FOR  IMPROVEMENTS 

PROMINENT   SHORTCOMINGS   IN   THE   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL 

WORK 

PORTLAND'S  comprehension  of  the  problem  of   ele- 
mentary education,  as  shown  in  printed  courses  of  study 
and  the  presentation  of  subject-matter  in  the  classrooms, 
seems  to  me  to  be  much  too  limited.    Portland  seems  to  be 
failing  especially  in  the  following  particulars: 

1.  In  not  taking  advantage  of  the  life  experience  of  the 
child.     The  school  takes  the  child  from  a  very  wonderful 
set  of  experiences,  which  have  so  far  been  the  determining 
factors  in  his  life,  and  forces  him  into  an  environment  that 
has  little  or  nothing  in  common  with  these  or  any  other  im- 
portant life  experiences.    The  principal  business  of  the  child 
in  the  first  few  grades  is  to  play  and  to  grow  —  not  to  read, 
write,  spell,  and  cipher.    These  are  incidental  in  importance. 
If  they  can  be  made  a  part  of  the  play,  it  is  well  to  use  them ; 
if  not,  they  should  be  handled  sparingly.    Portland's  schools 
are  making  life  too  formal,  too  serious,  too  uninteresting, 
and  too  unnatural  for  her  children. 

2.  In  not  properly  establishing  and  maintaining  kinder- 
gartens.    There  probably  is  force  in  the  contention  that 
children  enter  school  too  young;   but  there  are  no  physio- 
logical, psychological,  or  sociological  reasons  why  a  child 

1  Chapters  X  and  XI  were  written  by  Superintendent  J.  H.  Francis.  — 
EDITOR. 

224 


Vocational  Studies  225 

should  go  to  school  when  he  is  six  years  old  that  would  not 
equally  apply  to  his  entering  city  schools  at  five  or  four  years 
of  age,  if  the  instruction  offered  were  suited  to  his  needs. 
The  six-year  age  for  attending  schools  is  traditional,  and  was 
probably  originally  fixed  at  the  time  when  the  child  could 
overcome  the  physical  difficulties  of  reaching  the  school. 
These  have  been  removed  in  our  modern  cities.  Mr.  Leon- 
ard P.  Ay  res,  of  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  has  proved  by 
an  exhaustive  test  that  there  is  no  difference  in  the  mental 
attainment  and  strength  of  twelfth-grade  pupils  between 
those  who  have  and  those  who  have  not  gone  through  the 
kindergarten.  Had  the  data  been  available  and  the  test  been 
made,  doubtless  the  same  conclusions  would  have  been 
reached  concerning  those  who  have  and  those  who  have  not 
gone  through  the  first  grade.  Given  home  conditions  that 
approach  the  ideal  for  child  growth  and  training,  most  stu- 
dents would  agree  that  the  age  of  entering  school  should 
be  postponed,  unless,  of  course,  school  conditions  might  be 
materially  modified  and  made  more  clearly  to  approach  ideal 
conditions  for  the  developing  and  training  of  children.  Cer- 
tain it  is  that  under  present  conditions  in  our  large  cities, 
complicated  by  social  and  economic  forces,  our  cities  must 
become  partially  responsible  for  children  earlier  than  six 
years  of  age,  and  the  kindergarten,  with  its  ideals  and  prac- 
tices, is  a  much  more  normal  place  for  children  than  the 
grade  schools. 

3.  In  not  properly  recognizing  the  motor  instincts  of 
children.    In  the  earlier  grades  the  work  is  largely  bookish, 
formal,  mechanical,  and  unapplied.     Children  love  to  do 
things  and  to  make  things.    Most  of  their  work  should  con- 
sist of  these  activities.     The  relative  time  and  importance 
given  to  abstract,  academic  work  and  to  applied  work,  in  the 
Portland  schools,  should  be  reversed. 

4.  In  lack  of  understanding  of  the  value  of  play  in  the 
development  of  the  child.    "  Play  is  the  business  of  child- 
hood."    The  supervision  in  Portland,  while  excellent,  is 


226  The  Portland  Survey 

inadequate;  many  of  the  schools  are  without  playgrounds 
worthy  of  the  name.  I  saw  none  equipped  with  suffi- 
cient play  apparatus.  I  saw  no  play  in  the  schoolrooms, 
with  windows  raised  and  children  engaged  in  physical 
games,  with  intensity  to  the  point  of  self-abandonment  and 
mental  relaxation,  breathing  good  air,  stirring  the  blood, 
and  building  bone  and  muscle.  There  were  no  be  fore- 
school,  afternoon,  and  Saturday  playgrounds,  in  charge 
of  competent  teachers.  It  will  not  suffice  to  have  play- 
grounds established  and  conducted  by  the  municipality,  in- 
dependent of  the  schools.  They  are  too  expensive,  they 
reach  too  few  children,  and  they  cannot  be  properly  corre- 
lated with  the  other  phases  of  school  work.  Play  as  an 
element  in  education  must  become  an  integral  and  an  im- 
portant part  of  the  problem  of  child  development. 

THE  VOCATIONAL  STUDIES  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 
COURSE  OF  STUDY 

Superintendent  Spaulding,  in  Chapters  VIII  and  IX,  has 
dealt  with  the  school  instruction  as  a  whole;  it  is  my  work 
to  deal  with  that  part  of  it  which  relates  to  the  so-called 
vocational  studies.  These  I  shall  accordingly  consider, 
under  the  headings  of  primary  manual  arts,  manual  train- 
ing, sewing,  cookery,  drawing,  music,  and  school  gardening. 

I.     PRIMARY    MANUAL   ARTS 

This  should  cover  the  manual  work  in  the  first  four 
grades.  Portland  has  as  yet  done  nothing  in  this  work. 
This  I  deem  one  of  her  most  striking  educational  failures. 
It  is  difficult  to  think  of  a  large  city  system  in  which  the 
little  folks  are  deprived  of  the  privilege  and  advantage  of 
working  out,  with  their  hands,  simple  concrete  constructive 
problems.  They  should  not  be  required  to  "  study,"  but 
rather  allowed  to  do  things.  I  understand  that  it  is  planned 
to  introduce  this  work  during  the  coming  school  year,  and 


Vocational  Studies  227 

that  there  is  an  inclination  to  place  it  under  the  supervision 
of  the  drawing  department.  While  the  two  fields  touch  at 
many  points,  and  should  be  correlated,  I  doubt  the  wisdom 
of  combining  them  under  one  supervision  at  this  time,  un- 
less an  assistant  could  be  secured  for  the  drawing  depart- 
ment who  has  special  qualifications  and  preparation  for  the 
work  and  who  would  be  allowed  to  develop  the  work  with- 
out hindrance.  This  I  think  would  be  difficult  to  accom- 
plish. It  would  be  much  simpler  and  safer  to  appoint  a  su- 
pervisor of  the  work,  who  would  be  responsible  for  its 
success  to  the  Superintendent  only. 

The  outline  and  execution  of  a  course  in  primary  manual 
work  should  be  guided  by  the  following  principles: 

1.  The  interest  of  the  child  must  be  aroused  and  sus- 
tained. 

2.  It  must  be  sufficiently  versatile  to  appeal  to  the  differ- 
ent personalities  in  the  classroom.    Not  all  children  will  be 
interested  in  doing  the  same  thing  at  the  same  time. 

3.  It  must  avoid  all  "  problems  "  conceived  or  invented 
to  fit  into  a  scheme  of  child  development  that  happens  at 
the  time  to  find  lodgment  in  the  brain  of  the  one  making 
the  course.    Unsuspecting  and  unprotected  children  should 
not  be  imposed  on  by  educational  theorizers  who  either 
have  forgotten  their  childhood  or  never  had  one. 

4.  It  must  connect  closely  with  the  life  and  experience 
of  the  child  outside  the  classroom. 

5.  It  must  correlate  closely  with  his  life  and  experience 
in  school.     This  last  principle  is  something  difficult  to  ob- 
serve, as  the  child  is  so  poor  in  both  life  and  experiences  in 
the  classroom  that  nothing  much  of  reality  will  correlate 
with  them. 

This  preparation  should  give  the  teacher  a  clear  compre- 
hension of  the  problem,  and  a  correct  attitude  toward  it, 
with  suggestions  only  of  how  best  to  work  it  out.  Too 
many  explicit  directions  are  bad  alike  for  both  teacher  and 
pupils. 


228  The  Portland  Survey 

6.    Teachers  must  be  prepared  to  present  the  work. 

For  this  preparation  the  supervisor  should  be  responsible. 
In  fact,  the  supervisor's  greatest,  if  not  her  only  responsibil- 
ity, lies  in  the  selection  and  preparation  of  her  teachers. 
The  practice  of  going  from  building  to  building  to  see  that 
teachers  are  following  courses  of  study  and  properly  pre- 
senting the  work  outlined,  which  is  a  very  common  type  of 
supervision  in  cities,  is  a  waste  of  time,  energy,  and  salary. 
Teachers  who  are  qualified  will  do  the  work  best  when  super- 
vised least ;  supervisors  who  cannot  prove  helpful  should  be 
displaced  by  those  who  can. 

This  work  has  been  well  outlined  and  carried  out  in  the 
Los  Angeles  schools,  where  its  large  educational  value  has 
been  fully  demonstrated.  The  outline  of  work  used  there 
may  prove  of  value  in  outlining  such  work  for  Portland. 

2.     MANUAL   TRAINING 

The  Portland  elementary  schools  offer  manual  training 
from  the  fifth  through  the  eighth  or  ninth  grades. 

Commendable  Features 
The  work  is  to  be  commended  for: 

1.  The  character  of  buildings  and  equipment.     I  Have 
seen  none  better  in  this  country.     The  plan  of  providing 
separate  buildings,  especially  designed  for  the  work,  has 
merit.     Its  only  limitation  lies  in  the  expensive  use  of 
grounds  already  too  small,  with  probably  some  inconven- 
ience and  additional  expense  in  heating.    These  sloyd  build- 
ings are  well  planned  to  meet  the  needs  and  conveniences  of 
the  work,  sufficiently  removed  from  the  main  building  to 
eliminate  disturbance  from  noise,  and  give  an  air  of  com- 
pleteness and  business  that  is  very  desirable. 

2.  The  liberal  provisions  in  sloyd  centers,   furnishing 
each  grammar  school  with  one.    This  is  a  distinct  economy 


Vocational  Studies  229 

of  the  child's  time,  saved  from  traveling  back  and  forth 
across  the  city.  It  also  prevents  certain  undesirable  prac- 
tices and  dissipations  that  are  very  apt  to  occur  with  a  class 
of.  younger  boys,  unaccompanied  on  these  trips.  One  of  its 
greatest  advantages,  however,  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  allows 
the  individual  school  the  full  use  of  its  manual  training 
plant. 

A  live,  resourceful  principal,  working  under  a  broad 
and  elastic  system,  of  school  administration,  should  save 
practically  all  his  boys  to  school  and  to  themselves  by  assign- 
ing the  "  motor-sensed  "  to  additional  time  in  the  shops.  A 
very  large  percentage  of  the  boys  of  upper  grammar  school 
age  should  spend  at  least  one  half  of  their  school  day  in 
manual  work.  The  time  of  the  school  day  should  be  ex- 
tended, however. 

A  shop  that  is  at  the  exclusive  command  of  the  school 
can  also  be  made  to  serve  the  needs  of  the  school  in  repair 
work,  school  furniture,  etc.  This  has  an  economic  value  of 
but  minor  importance,  but  a  social  and  educational  value  of 
great  significance.  The  boy  who  is  doing  something  for 
society  in  return  for  the  advantages  society  is  offering  him, 
is  the  only  type  of  boy  who  can  be  safely  depended  upon  to 
play  the  game  in  a  big,  square  way  as  a  man. 

3.  The  liberal  allotment  of  time  given  the  manual  work. 

4.  The  character  of  the  work  done  in  some  centers.    In 
either  quality  or  kind  I  have  not  seen  the  work  done  in 
some  of  these  centers  surpassed.    I  have  never  seen  poorer 
work  done,  however,  than  that  done  in  some  of  the  other 
centers.     The  unevenness  in  the  teachers  was  surprising. 

Defects  Observed 

The  work  has  some  defects,  which  are  characteristic  of 
the  Portland  schools: 

i.  In  grades  preceding  the  eighth  the  work  is  formal, 
inelastic,  uniform,  and  prescriptive.  It  takes  little  or  no 


230  The  Portland  Survey 

account  of  the  individuality  of  either  the  pupil  or  the 
teacher.  It  does  not  allow  freedom  in  purpose,  variation 
from  type  in  color,  decoration,  or  finish  of  objects.  It  re- 
moves from  both  teachers  and  pupils  the  opportunity  and 
responsibility  for  devising,  originating,  and  illustrating.  It 
is  limited  in  the  variety  of  materials  used. 

2.  It  does  not  connect  closely  with  life  outside  the  school- 
room.    Opportunity  is  not  given  for  the  construction  of 
large  pieces  of  work,  useful  in  the  home  or  in  the  boy's 
home  activities  and  interests. 

3.  It  gives  no  recognition  to  work  done  independently  by 
the  boy  away  from  school. 

4.  It  fails  to  correlate  closely  with  other  school  work. 

These  defects  should  be  remedied  by  a  revision  of  the 
work  in  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  years.  The  work  in 
the  Los  Angeles  schools,  in  these  grades,  embodies  the 
suggestions  for  improvement  made  above,  and  the  outline 
of  work  followed  there  may  prove  helpful  in  strengthening 
the  Portland  work. 

3.    SEWING 

Portland  makes  liberal  time  allowance  for  sewing,  which 
is  under  the  supervision  of  one  person,  in  both  grades  and 
high  schools.  The  city  is  to  be  commended  for  the  liberal 
equipment  of  sewing  machines  provided  for  the  grade 
schools.  The  results  attained  in  the  high  schools  are  ex- 
cellent, but  not  commensurate  with  the  time  expended  upon 
the  work.  By  reorganizing  the  work,  equally  good  results 
should  be  attained  at  a  saving  of  one  third  in  time. 

The  elementary  school  child  is  required  to  give  too  much 
time  and  effort  to  exercise  work  perfecting  the  different 
stitches.  This  is  following  the  older  theory  and  practice  of 
teaching  the  child  the  stitches  and  leaving  it  to  her  to  make 
the  application,  as  against  the  more  modern  one  that  the 
girl  can  best  acquire  the  practice  and  art  of  proper  stitching 


Vocational  Studies  231 

through  application  to  some  useful  article  in  which  her  in- 
terests are  at  the  time  centered.  Portland  is  following  the 
extreme  of  the  older  theory.  Doubtless  some  others  are 
extreme  in  their  advocacy  of  the  more  recent  theory,  but 
this  is  less  destructive  of  the  interest  and  joy  the  child  finds 
in  her  work,  without  which  two  qualities  school  work  lacks 
the  essentials  of  education.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
the  purpose  of  sewing  is  the  making  of  beautiful  and  useful 
things,  and  not  the  making  of  stitches,  which  should  be 
taught  only  as  a  means  to  a  larger  end.  Most  girls  like  to 
sew  if  allowed  to  make  things,  but  this  joy  and  liking  may 
be  killed  if  too  much  time  is  expended  upon  processes  too 
remotely  connected  with  the  thing  to  be  made.  The  making 
of  simple  garments  should  begin  in  the  fifth  grade,  where 
sewing  is  introduced.  In  the  Portland  schools  girls  are  not 
allowed  to  begin  any  real  constructive  work  below  the  eighth 
grade.  This  delay  is  destructive  of  the  girl's  interest  and  in 
particular  wasteful  of  her  time. 

Some  suggestions  for  a  revision  of  the  sewing  course 
might  be  given.  The  work  for  the  elementary  schools 
should  include: 

1.  Handiwork,    stitches,    seams,    hems,    gathering, 

bands,  darning  and  patching,  plackets,  button- 
holes and  sewing  on  of  buttons,  and  ornamental 
stitches,  all  applied  to  articles  suitable  to  the 
lower  grades 

2.  The  study  of  textiles 

3.  Textile  designs 

4.  History  of  articles  used,  such  as  needles,  thimbles, 

scissors,  etc. 

5.  Laundering  (in  industrial  centers) 

A  sewing  bag  made  will  illustrate  hemming,  as  will  nap- 
kins. A  pinball  will  illustrate  gathering  and  top  sewing.  A 
laundry  bag  will  illustrate  cross-stitch  designing.  A  two- 
breadth  gingham  apron,  French  seams ;  a  duster  bag,  felled 


232  The  Portland  Survey 

seams.  Things  from  home  should  be  brought  for  darning 
and  patching.  Articles  for  home  should  be  made,  such  as 
sofa  pillow,  table  runner,  table  cover,  or  towels.  Aprons, 
corset  covers,  and  nightgowns  may  be  made.  Textiles  should 
be  studied,  also  trimmings.  Proper  laundering  of  different 
kinds  of  goods  should  be  taught.  The  efficiency  of  the  work 
in  the  Portland  schools  could  be  greatly  increased  by  a  re- 
vision of  the  work  along  some  such  lines.  The  present 
model  work  is  uneconomical  of  time  and  effort. 


4.    COOKERY 

The  Portland  schools  do  not  introduce  cookery  into  the 
course  of  study  below  the  high  schools.  This  defect  is  so 
serious  that  it  is  difficult  to  excuse  it  upon  any  grounds. 
Cookery  should  begin  in  the  latter  half  of  the  sixth  grade, 
certainly  not  later  than  the  beginning  of  the  seventh.  Possi- 
bly no  other  subject  in  the  course  quite  equals  cookery  in 
importance  for  the  average  American  girl,  whether  viewed 
from  the  developmental  or  utilitarian  standpoints.  In  view 
of  the  fact  that  a  large  number  of  girls  never  reach  the  high 
school,  added  to  the  fact  that  educationally  cookery  belongs 
early  in  the  course  of  study,  its  immediate  introduction  into 
the  Portland  grade  schools  is  urged. 

It  is  highly  desirable,  for  the  reasons  suggested  in  refer- 
ence to  sloyd  work,  that  each  grade  school  should  have  a 
cookery  room.  For  the  installation  of  suitable  equipment, 
including  plumbing,  the  cost  would  range  between  $800  and 
$1,000  per  room. 

The  work  in  the  seventh  grade  should  include  lessons  on 
measurements,  dishes  and  utensils,  combustion,  water, 
food  elements  and  principles,  cereals,  vegetables,  milk,  eggs, 
soups,  meats,  meat  substitutes,  and  general  cookery.  In  the 
eighth  grade  the  work  should  include  a  study  of  leavening 
agents,  sources  of  carbon  dioxid,  fermentation,  bread,  ex- 
ercises in  practical  cookery,  hygiene  and  sanitation,  and  first 
aid  to  the  injured. 


Vocational  Studies  233 


5.    DRAWING 

The  course  in  drawing  prescribed  for  the  elementary 
grades  in  the  Portland  schools  closely  resembles  that  of  the 
average  school  system  of  the  United  States.  It  would  be 
classified  as  a  rational  course,  designed  to  interest  the  pupil 
and  stimulate  his  activities  along  art  lines.  The  same  quali- 
ties that  would  rank  it  as  rational  and  standard  constitute 
its  defects.  Explicit  directions  are  given  in  detail  for  each 
week's  work,  making  no  allowance  for  the  exercise  of  initia- 
tive upon  the  part  of  the  teacher,  or  for  contingencies  that 
may  arise  in  the  school  or  home  life  of  the  child.  These 
constitute  two  most  important  factors  in  all  school  work, 
and  especially  in  drawing.  The  system  that  fails  to  take 
them  into  serious  account  is  not  truly  educational.  Only 
that  course  capable  of  broadest  interpretation,  and  suffi- 
ciently flexible  to  allow  of  constant  changes,  is  worthy. 

Portland's  printed  course  in  elementary  drawing  lays 
emphasis  on  illustration,  and  this  is  commendable,  but  my 
observation  of  the  work  leads  me  to  suspect  that  in  practice 
this  part  of  the  course  is  neglected.  I  saw  no  strong  indi- 
cations that  children  were  encouraged  to  illustrate  their  con- 
ception of  a  story  read  from  books  of  literature  or  told  by 
teachers ;  of  their  impressions  of  mother  preparing  a  meal, 
of  brother  playing  ball,  of  teacher  calling  school,  or  of  the 
circus  parade.  Nor,  in  the  upper  grades,  of  boys  designing 
or  sketching  kites,  motor  boats,  automobiles,  or  of  girls 
working  on  color,  line,  and  proportion  found  in  a  dress,  or 
hat,  or  furnished  room.  The  course  fails  to  connect  with 
life  and  correlate  with  school  work. 

In  the  first  year  formal  instruction  in  color  and  landscape 
composition  is  given.  This  is  an  educational  error.  Such 
work  should  come  later.  Color  work  in  the  primary  grades 
should  be  informal.  Attempts  at  accuracy  should  be 
avoided,  standards  abandoned,  and  space  relations  ignored. 
The  large  amount  of  time  devoted  to  color,  figure,  and  land- 


234  The  Portland  Survey 

scape  work  should  permit  of  more  picture  study  than  seems 
to  be  done. 

Conventionalizing  of  nature  forms  is  overemphasized. 
The  development  of  design  exclusively  from  nature  motifs 
is  questionable,  from  the  standpoint  of  either  artistic  or 
educational  principles.  Too  many  subjects  are  undertaken 
in  the  upper  grades,  and  too  little  time  is  given  to  object 
drawing  and  perspective. 

In  the  seventh  grade  differentiation  of  courses  should  be- 
gin, and  limited  optional  work,  to  meet  the  needs  and  de- 
sires of  individuals,  should  be  allowed.  Mechanical  draw- 
ing for  boys  should  be  developed  and  made  optional  with  the 
free-hand.  In  properly  organized  work,  adequately  taught, 
boys  should  be  able  to  do  first-year  high  school  drawing  in 
the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  and,  as  in  the  case  in  Port- 
land, where  so  many  boys  remain  in  the  grades  through  the 
ninth  year,  one  and  one  half  years  of  strong  mechanical 
drawing  could  be  completed  before  reaching  the  tenth  year 
of  school  life.  Boys  and  girls,  however,  should  not  remain 
in  the  grade  schools  through  the  ninth  year ;  this  year  should 
be  placed  elsewhere. 

The  course  for  girls  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades 
should  lead  into  costume  designing  and  home  decorating. 
A  very  large  proportion  of  our  girls  in  the  upper  grammar 
grades  and  in  the  high  schools  should  be  using  a  major  part 
of  their  drawing  time  in  this  phase  of  the  work.  So-called 
fine  art  is  relatively  of  minor  importance,  compared  with 
home  and  civic  art  —  everyday  art  that  enters  into  the  lives 
of  all. 

6.     MUSIC 

I  was  not  able,  on  account  of  limited  time,  to  see  enough 
of  the  work  of  music  in  the  Portland  schools  to  form  accu- 
rate judgment  upon  it.  By  inquiry,  however,  I  learned  that 
it  is  not  sufficiently  provided  for  in  music  rooms,  musical 
instruments,  or  teachers  and  supervisors.  Every  elementary 
school  should  have  a  room  especially  fitted  for  the  teaching 


Vocational  Studies  235 

of  music.  It  should  be  supplied  with  a  piano  and  some  other 
musical  instruments,  and  should  be  decorated  with  proper 
pictures  to  give  it  a  musical  atmosphere.  In  the  larger 
schools  there  should  be  a  teacher  who  is  specially  prepared 
for  the  work  and  who  gives  all  her  time  to  it.  The  smaller 
schools  can  sometimes  be  grouped,  and  one  teacher  assigned 
to  two  or  more  schools.  Each  school  should  have  its 
choruses,  glee  clubs,  and  orchestras.  Among  the  music  su- 
pervisors of  a  city  there  should  be  one  or  more  devoting  their 
entire  time  to  the  development  of  school  orchestras.  A  city 
becomes  musical,  not  by  the  number  of  musical  stars  who 
delight  high-priced  audiences,  but  by  the  number  of  her 
children  who  have  opportunities  to  develop  the  native  love 
of  music  and  acquire  some  skill  in  its  art.  The  expense  item 
is  used  as  an  argument  against  the  fuller  expansion  of  the 
study  of  music  in  our  schools,  but  the  present  method  of 
teaching  it,  with  limited  facilities  and  poorly  prepared  teach- 
ers, is  incomparably  more  wasteful  and  expensive  than  the 
plan  proposed. 

Portland,  in  common  with  most  other  cities  in  the  United 
States,  is  making  the  fundamental  pedagogic  mistake  in 
music  teaching  of  expending  all  her  time  and  effort  in 
repeating,  copying,  and  reproducing  the  music  composed 
by  others,  and  wholly  neglecting  music  composition.  This 
failure  is  due  to  custom  and  a  preconceived  belief  that  the 
child  cannot  express  its  musical  self.  But  it  can,  and  as 
well  as  it  can  express  any  other  emotion,  or  intellectual 
qualities. 

7.     SCHOOL   GARDENING 

Some  excellent  work  is  being  done  by  the  children  of 
Portland  in  school  and  home  gardens.  It  is  being  done, 
however,  under  the  inspiration  and  supervision  of  outside 
civic  organizations,  and  at  their  expense.  Their  only  con- 
nection with  the  schools  is  that  they  are  doing  for  the  school 
children  the  work  that  should  be  done  by  the  schools.  This 


236  The  Portland  Survey 

arrangement  can  never  be  wholly  satisfactory,  and  for  the 
following  reasons : 

1.  It  is  expensive.    To  be  sure,  the  money  to  conduct  it 
does  not  come  from  school  funds,  but  any  work  accom- 
plished at  an  excessive  cost  must  entail  a  loss  to  the  com- 
munity and  to  society. 

2.  It  cannot  be  as  effectively  done,  due  to  the  fact  that 
civic  organizations  cannot  or  will  not  select  people  as  well 
qualified  to  present  it. 

3.  It  reaches  a  limited  number  of  pupils,  as  must  all 
activities  conducted  outside  the  school  organization. 

4.  School  gardening  is  a  legitimate  and  necessary  part 
of  every  city  course  of  study  and  should  have  a  definite 
place  and  time  given  to  it.    The  study  should  begin  with  the 
kindergarten,  and  extend  through  the  high  school.    No  place 
is  quite  so  much  in  need  of  school  and  home  gardening  as 
a  modern  city.     Work  in  home  gardening  should  receive 
as  much  attention  as  work  in  school  gardens  and  should  be 
given  equal  credit. 

Supervisor  of  School  Gardens  Needed 

Portland  should  employ  a  supervisor  of  school  gardens, 
with  not  fewer  than  three  assistants.  Their  duties  should 
include : 

i.  The  securing  of  privileges  to  use  vacant  lots  adjoin- 
ing school  grounds.  This  can  usually  be  done  without  cost, 
as  it  enhances  the  value  of  the  ground  to  have  it  cultivated 
and  kept  clean.  The  practice  of  paying  rent  for  these  lots 
for  school  purposes  is  an  unnecessary  expense.  If  the  policy 
of  not  paying  rent  is  uniform,  vacant  lots  in  sufficient  num- 
ber will  be  given  by  property  owners.  The  Board  of  Edu- 
cation should  pipe  for  irrigation,  if  necessary,  and  should 
fence  property  offered  for  a  reasonable  time,  if  fencing  be- 
comes a  necessity.  Usually,  however,  children  can  be  taught 


Vocational  Studies  237 

to  respect  even  the  unprotected  property  of  others;  this  of 
itself  is  a  most  valuable  lesson  for  the  average  American 
child. 

2.  The  responsibility  for  a  general  suggestive  outline  of 
work. 

3.  The  issuing  of  frequent  bulletins  on  the  work,  that 
will  furnish  information  on  the  time  and  method  of  planting 
and  cultivating  vegetables,  shrubbery,  and  flowers,  for  home 
and  school  gardens. 

4.  The  supervision  and  inspection  of  home  gardens,  and 
the  recommending  of  the  credits  due  those  cultivating  them. 

5.  The  holding  of  regular  meetings  for  the  discussion, 
with  teachers,  of  the  educational  and  agricultural  problems 
involved.     These  meetings  should  be  attended  by  at  least 
one  teacher  from  each  building,  who  is  assigned  the  respon- 
sibility for  the  work  of  her  school.     Such  a  teacher  should 
be  given  either  free  time,  or  financial  consideration,  or  both, 
for  this  work. 

Most  important  of  all,  the  supervisor  should  be  the  in- 
spiration of  the  work  and  should  be  able  to  educate  the  de- 
partment and  the  public  upon  its  scope,  purposes,  and  im- 
portance. Such  a  person  will  probably  command  a  good  sal- 
ary, but  he  will  always  be  worth  more  to  a  city  than  he  will 
receive  from  it.  A  number  of  American  cities  are  employ- 
ing, through  their  "  Ad  Clubs  "  or  Chambers  of  Commerce, 
trained  agricultural  advisers  for  the  farming  community 
surrounding  them.  This  may  be  good  and  profitable,  but 
even  better  and  more  profitable  would  be  agricultural  ad- 
visers and  teachers  for  the  children  in  the  schools. 

Portland  is  most  favorably  situated  for  this  line  of  school 
activity.  I  doubt  if  there  is  any  other  one  subject  of  equal 
importance  to  the  city.  A  great  city,  located  in  the  center 
of  one  of  the  greatest  agricultural  districts  of  the  country, 
it  becomes  her  imperative  duty  to  turn  the  attention  of  her 
children  to  the  soil.  Thousands  of  them  are  fitted  by  tem- 
perament and  inclination  to  become  successful  farmers. 


238  The  Portland  Survey 

This  applies  to  girls  and  to  boys  alike.  Probably  no  other 
vocation  holds  out  so  many  chances  of  success  to  both  men 
and  women,  within  the  next  half  century,  as  does  the  culti- 
vation of  the  soil.  More  significant  than  this  is  the  fact  that 
no  nation  can  hope  for  permanent  success,  security,  and 
prosperity  if  the  educational,  social,  and  economic  forces 
within  her  are  drawing  her  boys  and  girls  in  excessive  num- 
bers away  from  the  land.  "  Back  to  the  soil  "  is  a  cry  that 
has  not  come  too  early  in  this  country,  and  to  be  effective  it 
must  center  in  our  public  schools.  This  is  the  practical 
phase  of  the  question.  The  aesthetic,  ethical,  and  educa- 
tional phases  are  equally  potent  for  the  development  of 
school  and  home  gardens  in  American  cities. 

THE  VOCATIONAL  STUDIES  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

The  Portland  high  schools  offer  the  work  of  the  regula- 
tion type  of  American  academic  high  schools,  plus  a  limited 
amount  of  modern  applied  work.  The  nearest  approach  to 
vocational  work  is  to  be  found  in  the  commercial  course, 
and  second  to  this  is  the  sewing  for  girls.  The  other  man- 
ual work  is  more  scholastic  in  its  nature  than  practical.  The 
indications  of  real  life  elements  are  scant. 


THE   PRINCIPAL   AND   THE   SCHOOL 

Conversation  with  the  principal  of  one  of  the  high  schools 
gave  the  impression  that  he  is  beginning  to  see  his  problem 
and  will,  if  given  opportunity  by  the  administrative  authori- 
ties, begin  the  development  of  some  progressive,  worth- 
while work.  Uniformity  in  the  high  schools  is  carried  to 
extremes.  The  first  and  greatest  need  in  the  system  is  the 
placing  of  more  responsibility  upon  the  principals,  who 
should  be  supported  in  rational  changes  they  may  under- 
take and  held  for  results.  This  plan  would  challenge  their 
best  powers.  A  failure  to  respond  to  the  new  opportuni- 
ties and  responsibilities  would  justify  a  change  of  principals. 


Vocational  Studies  239 

Great  care  should  be  exercised,  however,  in  giving  these 
men  a  fair  trial.  .Not  only  should  they  be  allowed  latitude  in 
inaugurating  new  courses  and  radically  modifying  old  ones, 
but  their  recommendations  on  teachers  should  be  practically 
decisive  for  selection  or  rejection.  It  must  also  be  re- 
membered that  these  high  schools  cannot  be  brought  to  a 
reasonable  degree  of  efficiency  in  a  limited  time.  The  prob- 
lem has  so  many  important  factors  that  it  becomes  large 
and  complex.  The  principal  of  a  large  high  school  who 
succeeds  in  reorganizing  his  school  and  heading  it  in  the 
right  direction,  without  too  much  friction,  is  a  big  man  and 
has  made  a  great  contribution  to  the  permanent  welfare  of 
his  city  and  to  the  cause  of  education  at  large. 

SPECIAL   LINES   OF   WORK   OFFERED 

The  Portland  high  schools,  in  addition  to  the  general  in- 
struction, outlined  at  length  in  Chapter  VIII,  offer  voca- 
tional work  of  four  kinds,  namely,  the  commercial  course, 
drawing,  shop  work,  domestic  art,  and  domestic  science. 

I.     THE   COMMERCIAL   COURSE 

The  work  offered  follows  the  traditional  lines  of  book- 
keeping, penmanship,  commercial  arithmetic,  stenography 
and  typewriting,  and  commercial  law,  with  somewhat  more 
liberal  emphasis  placed  upon  commercial  geography,  history 
and  principles  of  commerce,  and  economics  than  is  to  be 
found  in  the  average  commercial  course.  Only  two  of 
the  high  schools,  the  Lincoln  and  the  Jefferson,  offer  the 
commercial  work. 

As  Portland's  interests  are  largely  commercial,  the  com- 
mercial work  of  her  schools  should  be  of  the  very  best.  It 
does  not,  however,  excel  in  any  particular.  In  comprehen- 
sion of  the  problem,  it  is  very  mediocre.  The  presentation 
of  the  work,  in  places,  is  excellent;  in  spots  it  is  inexcus- 
ably poor,  and  on  an  average  it  is  only  fair.  The  textbooks 


240  The  Portland  Survey 

used  are  standard,  but  they  are  followed  entirely  too  reli- 
giously. The  time  allotment  for  the  different  subjects  is 
reasonable;  that  given  to  stenography  and  typewriting  is 
generous.  The  results,  while  fairly  satisfactory,  are  not 
commensurate  with  the  time  given  to  the  work.  The  work 
done  should  be  done  equally  well  at  a  saving  of  one  third 
in  time,  and  time  is  an  important  element  in  business.  Com- 
mercial students  should  not  be  so  crowded  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  work  as  to  encourage  superficiality  or  inaccuracy, 
and  should  be  put  under  exacting  tests  for  accuracy  and 
speed  before  finishing  the  course.  Profligacy  of  time  is  a 
common  weakness  in  school  work;  commercial  work  offers 
an  excellent  opportunity  to  minimize  the  evil. 

The  principal  criticism  to  be  passed  upon  the  commercial 
work  in  the  Portland  high  schools  is  its  failure  in  points  of 
contact  with  real  things.  Little  or  no  effort  is  made  to  take 
advantage  of  the  excellent  opportunities  offered  to  vitalize 
the  work,  by  putting  it  in  touch  with  the  business  phases 
of  the  school  and  the  commercial  life  of  the  city.  No  op- 
portunity is  offered  young  people  employed  in  business  to 
supplement  their  experience  by  commercial  work  in  the  high 
schools.  Classes  should  be  organized  for  these  people,  and 
provision  made  for  those  who  can  attend  school  only  part  of 
the  time.  .No  pre-academic  requirements  should  be  made  of 
them.  If  necessary,  classes  at  irregular  hours  should  be  or- 
ganized for  them. 

Pupils  of  the  commercial  department  seemed  to  be  as 
little  familiar  with  and  concerned  about  the  city  commercially 
as  those  of  other  departments.  There  was  a  general  lack  of 
intelligence  concerning  the  commercial  enterprises  in  which 
Portland  men  are  engaged  and  the  opportunities  offered 
future  business  men  in  these  fields.  No  special  instruction 
was  given  on  the  qualities  and  qualifications  necessary  to 
meet  the  demands  in  business  in  general  or  in  special  lines 
of  business.  The  course  of  instruction,  as  presented,  seemed 
to  limit  its  purpose  to  producing  young  men  and  women 
who  could  take  positions  as  subordinate  accountants,  clerks, 


Vocational  Studies  241 

or  stenographers.  No  large  conceptions  seemed  to  domi- 
nate the  work. 

No  attempt,  either,  seemed  to  be  made  to  follow  these 
young  people  after  leaving  school,  to  discover  what  posi- 
tions they  secured  and  what  success  they  had  in  filling  them. 
The  commercial  department  also  assumed  no  responsibility 
for  the  business  of  the  school  in  handling,  accounting  for, 
and  auditing  the  business  transactions  necessary  in  paid  en- 
tertainments, athletics,  class  dues,  society  funds,  lunch-room 
moneys,  etc.  The  departments  were  not  even  equipped  with 
the  regulation  office  furniture  and  fixtures  for  so-called  busi- 
ness practice,  much  less  for  large  business  preparation. 
Portland  seems  to  need  more  commercial  teachers  who  are 
alive  and  in  intelligent  and  sympathetic  touch  with  the  great 
commercial  movements  of  their  own  city;  teachers  who 
have  energy,  courage,  comprehension,  and  vision,  and  whose 
suggestions  and  recommendations  will  be  heeded. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  work  offered  in  bookkeeping 
and  stenography  and  typewriting,  advanced  classes  should 
be  organized,  covering  a  year's  additional  work.  These 
should  be  optional  with  other  subjects,  and  be  given  full 
credit.  Such  advanced  classes  in  stenography  and  typewrit- 
ing could  do  all  the  clerical  work  of  the  school  and  much  for 
the  different  departments  of  the  city  schools.  In  bookkeep- 
ing they  could  handle  all  the  school  business.  Pupils  from 
these  classes  should  be  sent  out  into  the  city,  when  possible, 
to  do  part-day  work  for  business  and  professional  men. 
This  would  give  the  school  an  opportunity  to  discover  the 
defects  of  the  individual  pupil  and  of  the  work  he  did  in 
school,  and  to  help  in  remedying  both.  This  outside  work 
should  receive  full  recognition  in  school  credits. 


2.     THE  WORK  IN  DRAWING 

Drawing  in  the  Portland  high  schools  is  a  continuation 
and  development  of  that  work  in  the  grades,  with  but  slight 
modifications.  It  possesses  the  same  merits  and  in  general 


242  The  Portland  Survey 

has  the  characteristic  limitations.  The  work  in  the  high 
schools  lacks  support,  both  in  equipment  and  teachers.  Upon 
the  basis  of  what  high  schools  of  Portland's  enrollment 
should  have,  they  are  supplied  with  about  one  half  of  what 
is  required  to  meet  the  needs  of  good  work  in  drawing.  If 
the  present  facilities  meet  the  full  demand  for  the  work  upon 
the  part  of  pupils,  it  is  probably  due  to  failure  in  offering 
courses  that  appeal  to  them. 

Work  in  materials  should  be  liberally  enlarged.  Most  de- 
signs made  by  pupils  should  be  worked  out  in  the  materials 
for  which  they  are  designed.  To  dream  dreams  is  an  ex- 
cellent thing,  provided  they  may  be  brought  to  pass.  The 
habit  of  working  on  problems,  in  our  public  schools,  that 
are  never  solved  in  the  terms  of  human  experiences  and  hu- 
man life,  constitutes  the  greatest  weakness  and  danger  to 
future  generations. 

The  work  in  clay  overemphasizes  modeling,  to  the  neglect 
of  pottery.  Modeling  has  a  life  significance  for  a  very  lim- 
ited number  of  people,  while  pottery  enters  into  the  lives  of 
all.  Pottery  has  been  a  major  factor  in  the  art  standards  of 
the  race,  while  modeling  has  been  a  very  minor  one. 

Fabric  designing  should  be  increased,  and  weaving  and 
metal  work  should  be  introduced. 

Drawing  offers  one  of  the  finest  of  opportunities  for  tak- 
ing the  school  into  the  home,  and  one  of  the  school's  great- 
est functions  is  to  go  into  the  home.  Portland  high  schools 
should  have  a  distinctive,  well-organized,  and  broad  four- 
years'  course  for  girls  in  home  planning,  decorating  and 
furnishing,  costume  designing,  and  study  of  fabrics.  Sug- 
gestions of  these  studies  are  found  scattered  throughout 
the  regular  course  in  drawing,  but  they  are  too  widely  dis- 
tributed, too  lacking  in  coherence,  and  too  little  related  to 
be  of  value  to  the  girl  in  the  problems  she  will  have  to  meet 
in  her  life  work. 

The  Portland  schools  also  offer  opportunity  for  serious, 
coherent,  and  worthy  courses  in  cartooning,  and  designing 
and  illustrating  for  advertising.  It  is  argued  that  this  work 


Vocational  Studies  243 

is  technical  and  belongs  to  a  technical  high  school,  but  every 
technical  high  school  should  have  in  its  courses  enough  of 
the  liberal  to  put  its  pupils  in  sympathetic  touch  with  the 
universal  principles  and  problems,  and  every  cultural  high 
school  must  teach  enough  of  the  applied  work  to  give  its 
students  a  grip  on  the  mighty  forces  at  play  in  modern  civ- 
ilization. The  high  school,  after  all,  can  reduce  its  prob- 
lems to  two :  ( I )  to  help  its  pupils  to  find  a  worthy  center 
of  interests,  and  (2)  to  enable  them  to  work  these  interests 
out  into  deeds. 

The  mechanical  drawing  offered  in  the  Portland  schools 
is  quite  elementary  and  should  be  done  in  the  grammar 
grades,  allowing  the  pupils  who  continue  the  work  in  high 
schools  to  go  into  the  mathematical  or  technical  phases  of 
the  subject.  There  is  hardly  any  limit  to  what  high  school 
boys  can  do  in  either,  if  given  time  for  it  and  if  the  work 
is  properly  developed  and  presented.  On  the  technical  side, 
boys  can  attain  an  earning  skill  in  architectural,  civil,  and 
mechanical  drafting  and  tracing.  Unless  taught  by  those 
qualified  to  present  the  subject,  however,  the  work  had  best 
not  be  undertaken. 


3.     SHOP   EQUIPMENT   AND   ITS   DISTRIBUTION 

The  extent  to  which  industrial  work  shall  be  carried  in  the 
individual  high  schools  of  a  city  system  is  both  an  economic 
and  an  educational  problem.  The  cost  of  shop  equipment, 
supplies  used,  and  teachers'  salaries  is  heavy,  where  the 
work  is  fully  organized.  Whether  it  is  best  to  equip  fully 
one  school  in  the  system  and  allow  all  pupils  desiring  the 
work  to  attend  this  school,  or  to  equip  partially  each  of  the 
schools  and  offer  the  advantages  of  shop  work  to  pupils  of 
all  schools,  is  a  question  of  some  importance.  If  the  only 
factors  to  be  considered  were  economy  and  the  efficiency  of 
those  taking  the  work  in  one  fully  equipped  school,  the 
former  plan  would  be  adopted.  This  would  be  done,  how- 
ever, at  the  sacrifice  of  certain  important  educational  fea- 


244  The  Portland  Survey 

tures.  The  selection  of  a  high  school,  when  left  to  the 
option  of  parents  and  pupils,  is  influenced  fully  as  much  by 
geographical  and  social  reasons  as  by  educational  advan- 
tages. Where  educational  reasons  determine  the  choice  of 
a  school,  there  is  always  the  probability  of  mistakes  in  the 
choice.  Insufficient  opportunity  has  been  afforded  the  boy 
to  determine  his  aptitudes  and  powers.  Many  good  mechan- 
ics, engineers,  and  farmers  are  being  spoiled  through  lack 
of  opportunity  in  school  to  discover  their  ability  in  these 
lines.  The  cosmopolitan  high  school  has  a  marked  advan- 
tage in  American  education. 

A  third  and  a  more  nearly  ideal  plan  is  to  establish  one 
fully  equipped  technical  high  school  in  the  system,  and 
organize  the  others  into  cosmopolitan  high  schools,  with 
simpler  shop  equipment  assigned  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  treating  manual  training  as  a  developmental  subject.  In 
a  school  of  this  kind  the  resourceful  practical  teacher  will 
find  it  possible  to  do  much  constructive  practical  work. 
This  plan  is  recommended  for  the  Portland  high  schools. 
If  adopted,  the  equipment  in  the  two  schools  now  offering 
shop  work  should  be  strengthened  to  meet  the  needs  of  a 
regular  cosmopolitan  high  school. 

Under  the  plan  now  followed,  the  facilities  and  courses 
are  markedly  inadequate.  Basement  rooms  are  used,  and  in 
one  of  the  buildings  these  are  poorly  lighted  and  ventilated. 
The  wood-shop  equipment  is  incomplete  and  in  one  building 
is  antiquated.  There  is  a  lack  of  any  dignified  and  effective 
attempt  at  forge  and  machine-shop  equipment.  The  small 
percentage  of  boys  electing  the  work  is  noticeable,  and  a 
general  unbusinesslike  air  pervades  the  manual-training 
rooms.  One  gets  the  impression  that  manual  training  is 
looked  upon  as  an  addendum  to  the  school,  rather  than  an 
integral  and  vital  part  of  it.  It  is  failing  to  make  itself  felt 
as  one  of  the  virile,  active  factors  in  high  school  work  and 
life  —  this,  too,  despite  the  fact  that  Portland  has  some 
efficient  men  handling  the  work. 


Vocational  Studies  245 


4.     DOMESTIC   ART 

Sewing  is  on  an  excellent  footing  in  the  Portland  high 
schools,  and  the  kind  and  quality  of  the  work  produced 
would  be  creditable  to  any  city.  To  attain  these  results  very 
liberal  time  allowance  has  been  given  and  excellent  equip- 
ment furnished.  Someone  in  the  schools  has  been  influen- 
tial in  caring  for  the  interests  of  domestic  art.  The  charac- 
ter of  the  work  has  had  a  marked  effect  upon  the  large 
number  of  girls  choosing  it  as  one  of  their  optional  subjects. 


5.     DOMESTIC   SCIENCE 

Domestic  science  is  also  well  provided  for  and  very  credit- 
ably done  in  the  Portland  high  schools.  A  year  of  domestic 
chemistry,  and  a  year  of  household  mathematics,  should  be 
added  to  the  course. 


THE  SCHOOL  OF  TRADES 

The  Portland  School  of  Trades  is  one  of  the  best  of  its 
kind  and  is  doing  excellent  work.  Work  in  the  machine 
shop  and  in  pattern-making,  electrical  construction,  mechani- 
cal drawing,  and  sewing  deserves  especial  commendation. 
Considering  the  fact  that  Portland  is  largely  a  commercial 
city  and  that  its  School  of  Trades  is  so  poorly  adapted  either 
in  location  or  building  to  the  work  undertaken,  the  enroll- 
ment is  much  above  the  average  in  schools  of  this  type 
throughout  the  country.  Despite  the  high  quality  of  work 
done,  however,  the  Portland  School  of  Trades  is  not  effec- 
tively meeting  the  problem  presented  to  it.  This  failure  is 
due  to : 

i.  The  location  and  character  of  the  building  in  which 
the  school  is  conducted.  These  are  such  as  to  discourage 
from  attending  the  very  students  in  need  of  the  work  of- 
fered. 


246  The  Portland  Survey 

2.  The  reluctance  of  parents  in  sending  their  children 
to  any  school  which  has  preparation  for  manual  work  as  its 
aim.     The  old  pernicious  fallacy  of  attaining  an  education 
to  escape  work  is  yet  strong  and  widely  distributed. 

3.  The  fact  that  Portland  is  not,  and  does  not  promise 
soon  to  become,  an  industrial  city. 

4.  The  lack  in  the  school  itself  of  imagination,  breadth 
of  vision,  and  spiritual  life.     The  cultural  phase  of  educa- 
tion receives  entirely  too  little  attention  in  it.    There  is  lack 
of  music,  dramatics,  and  public  speaking.    No  other  type  of 
school  is  so  greatly  benefited  by  these  subjects  as  a  voca- 
tional school,  or  responds  so  readily  to  them.     Such  work 
should  be  made  not  only  a  serious  part  of  trade  school  work, 
but  a  very  effective  and  interesting  part  of  it. 

For  these  and  other  reasons,  I  do  not  believe  Portland 
can  develop  a  great  trade  school,  or  one  that  can  do  the 
work  that  should  be  accomplished.  Other  larger  cities  and 
greater  in  industrialism  have  failed  to  establish  effective 
trade  schools. 

I  recommend,  therefore,  the  disposal  of  the  present  trade 
school  plant  and  the  establishment  of  a  first-class  technical 
or  polytechnic  high  school,  with  the  present  trade  courses 
offered  as  a  part  of  it.  This  would  result  in  greatly  en- 
larging the  field  of  work.  If  another  block  of  land  ad- 
joining the  Lincoln  High  School  were  secured  for  this,  it 
would  have  many  advantages.  It  would  bring  the  technical 
and  literary  students  in  touch  with  the  trade  pupils  and 
would  give  the  trade  pupils  the  literary  and  social  advan- 
tages of  the  technical  school.  There  is  the  great  and  con- 
stant danger  of  the  trade  courses  being  neglected  and  lost 
if  operated  in  a  technical  school.  This  can  be  avoided  only 
by  the  choice  of  a  principal  who  sees  the  whole  field  and  who 
will  select  skilled  tradesmen  to  develop  the  trade  work.  I 
should  not  make  this  recommendation  for  a  city  (if  as  large 
as  Portland)  with  highly  developed  industries,  or  for  one 


Vocational  Studies  247 

that  promised  to  become  an  industrial  city  within  a  reason- 
able time. 

AN  AGRICULTURAL  HIGH  SCHOOL 

An  agricultural  high  school  should  be  organized,  with 
ample  grounds  and  equipment.  This  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant suggestions  made  for  vocational  work  in  the  Port- 
land schools.  The  school  should  be  distinctly  an  agricul- 
tural school.  Its  science,  art,  shop  work,  home  economics, 
economic  and  social  problems,  and  mathematics  should  be 
developed  from  an  agricultural  standpoint.  The  danger  to 
be  avoided  in  organizing  such  schools  lies  in  the  selection  of 
a  principal  and  corps  of  teachers  who,  because  of  previous 
training,  will  make  the  school  cultural  and  academic  at 
heart  and  will  only  tolerate  agriculture  as  a  side  issue.  The 
cost  of  the  school  will  depend  largely  on  the  location  and 
size  of  the  site  and  the  character  of  buildings  provided. 
The  site  should  include  not  less  than  fifty  acres,  preferably 
more.  The  buildings,  except  the  central  administration 
building,  should  be  characteristic  of  the  farm,  and  hence 
need  not  be  expensive.  The  courses  offered  should  include 
truck  farming,  grain  and  hay  raising,  stock  raising,  dairy- 
ing, farm  implements,  farm  accounting,  orcharding,  soil 
analysis,  distribution  of  farm  products,  household  eco- 
nomics, farm  architecture,  and  forestry. 

SUMMARY  AND  RECOMMENDATIONS 

Portland  makes  the  following  provisions  for  vocational 
education  in  her  school  system : 

1.  School  gardening,  conducted  under  a  civic  organiza- 
tion, independent  of  the  system. 

2.  Drawing,  commencing  with  the  fourth  grade,  and  ex- 
tending through  the  high  school. 

3.  Manual  work  for  boys,  beginning  in  the  fifth  grade  as 
sloyd  and  continuing  in  the  high  school  as  general  wood- 
shop  and  machine-shop  work. 


248  The  Portland  Survey 

4.  Academic  mechanical  drawing,  in  the  high  school. 

5.  Sewing,  beginning  with  the  fifth  grade,  and  carried 
into  the  high  school. 

6.  Cooking,  taught  only  in  the  high  school. 

7.  Commercial  work,  offered  only  in  the  high  school. 

8.  Trade  work  in  carpentry,   cabinet  making,  pattern 
making,  machine-shop  work,  electrical  construction,  archi- 
tectural drawing,  mechanical  drawing,  printing,  cooking, 
sewing,  and  millinery,  offered  in  the  Portland  School  of 
Trades. 

With  the  exception  of  commercial  work  and  cooking  and 
sewing  in  the  high  schools,  and  work  in  the  School  of 
Trades,  the  applied  work  mentioned  is  more  cultural  and 
academic  than  vocational  in  character  and  purpose. 

The  following  changes  are  necessary  to  put  vocational 
work  in  Portland  on  the  most  efficient  basis : 

1.  Primary  manual  arts  should  be  introduced  into  the 
first,  second,  and  third  grades,  and  the  work  in  manual  train- 
ing in  the  upper  grades  made  much  less  formal. 

2.  Cooking  should  be  introduced  in  the  sixth  grade,  cer- 
tainly not  later  than  the  seventh  grade. 

3.  The  elementary  course  in  sewing  should  be  modified 
to  give  more  garment  making  and  less  exercise  work. 

4.  The  work  in  music  and  the  training  of  the  powers  of 
expression  need  much  amplification. 

5.  The  Board  of  School  Directors  should  assume  full 
financial  and  educational  responsibility  for  school  garden- 
ing and  should  place  the  work  under  an  efficient  supervisor, 
with  sufficient  help  to  carry  it  out. 

6.  Five  or  more  intermediate  schools  should  be  organ- 
ized, to  cover  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  grade  work. 
These  should  offer  distinct  courses  in  commercial  and  indus- 
trial work,  and  act  as  pre-vocational  schools.    Some  of  them 
should  specialize  in  vocational  branches,  as  indicated  earlier. 


Vocational  Studies  249 

One,  at  least,  should  offer  half-day  courses  from  9  to  12 
A.  M.,  or  from  I  to  4.30  p.  M.,  for  pupils  who  must  earn 
something  while  attending  school.  Courses  of  this  kind 
might  well  be  extended  through  the  tenth  year. 

7.  If  the  intermediate  school  plan  is  not  adopted,  free- 
hand drawing  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  should 
specialize,  to  meet  the  needs  of  girls,  in  costume  designing, 
home  decorating  and  furnishing,  pottery,  and  leather  and 
metal  work;  and  mechanical  drawing  should  be  offered  to 
boys.     The  drawing  in  the  high  schools  needs  redirection 
and  additional  facilities  for  work. 

8.  Vocational  work   for  girls  should   receive   a  much 
greater  expenditure  of  time,  thought,  and  money  than  it 
now  does. 

9.  A  vocational-guidance  director  should  be  appointed 
for  the  Portland  schools,  whose  duties  should  be:   (a)  to 
study  the  industrial  and  commercial  conditions  of  Portland 
and  its  environment,  to  discover  the  trend  of  commercial 
and  industrial  development;   (b)   through  communication 
with  business  men,  to  determine  what  the  schools  could  do 
better  to  fit  young  people  to  become  efficient  in  different 
lines  of  work;  (c)  to  advise  boys  and  girls  in  requirements, 
necessary  preparation,  and  prospects  in  different  vocations ; 

(d)  to  supervise  the  organization  of  vocational  courses,  and 

(e)  to  help  in  the  selection  of  vocational  teachers. 

10.  The  commercial  courses  in  the  high  schools  need  re- 
organizing, and  in  particular  need  to  be  much  more  closely 
connected  with  the  business  life  of  the  city.    In  a  city  such 
as  Portland,  where  the  business  life  is  of  such  fundamental 
importance,  the  commercial  work  ought  distinctly  to  excel. 

n.  In  a  city  with  such  important  agricultural  sur- 
roundings and  interests,  there  should  be  a  first-class  agri- 
cultural high  school,  well  provided  for  practical  instruction. 

12.  The  Portland  School  of  Trades  should  be  merged 
into  a  technical  high  school,  which  should  retain  the  trade 
courses. 


CHAPTER   XI 

NEEDED    REORGANIZATIONS   AND    EXPAN- 
SIONS   OF   THE    SCHOOL    SYSTEM 

A  FUNDAMENTAL  REORGANIZATION 

TO  enable  the  city  to  do  the  best  and  the  most  for  its  chil- 
dren,  the  school  system  should  be  reorganized  and 
grouped  into  the  following  units :  kindergartens,  elementary 
schools,  intermediate  schools,  high  schools. 

I .     KI NDERG  ARTENS 

The  kindergarten  should  give  instruction  to  those  below 
the  age  of  six,  and  this  work  should  merge  naturally  and 
gradually  into  that  of  the  first  grade.  This  can  best  be 
brought  to  pass  through  a  supervisor  in  charge  of  both  kin- 
dergarten and  first-grade  work.  The  kindergarten  work 
should  be  made  to  approach  that  of  the  first  grade,  but  more 
especially  should  the  first-grade  work  be  modified  to  meet 
more  nearly  that  of  the  kindergarten. 

2.     ELEMENTARY   SCHOOLS 

The  elementary  school  grades  should  cover  six  years  of 
school  work,  and  set  for  themselves  the  accomplishment  of 
two  purposes : 

i.  To  furnish  a  rational,  normal  environment,  in  which 
the  pre-adolescent  child  may  live  and  grow  without  fear, 
oppression,  or  repression,  for  six  years  of  his  life.  Beauty, 

250 


Needed  Reorganizations  and  Expansions         251 

faith,  joy,  interest,  and  play  should  characterize  it  all.  He 
should  imagine,  sing,  dance,  laugh,  play,  act,  draw,  con- 
struct with  his  hands,  sow,  cultivate  and  reap,  imitate,  love, 
breathe,  and  eat. 

2.  Incidentally  he  should  attain  efficiency  in  reading  the 
printed  page,  mastering  the  fundamentals  —  addition,  sub- 
traction, multiplication,  and  division  —  in  number  combina- 
tions, learn  to  write  a  legible  free  hand  and  to  spell  with  a 
reasonable  degree  of  accuracy.  In  acquiring  these  attain- 
ments, however,  his  little  mind  must  not  be  befogged  by 
dead  academic  stuff,  nor  his  buoyant  spirits  depressed  by 
fear,  envy,  hate,  duty,  or  responsibility.  "  Ought  "  may  be 
the  greatest  word  in  the  English  vocabulary,  but  it  does  not 
belong  to  childhood. 


3.     THE   INTERMEDIATE   SCHOOL 

This  should  be  composed  of  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth- 
grade  pupils,  and  should  set  for  itself  the  solution  of  the 
problems  of  early  adolescence.  There  probably  is  no  more 
important  time  in  a  child's  life  than  this,  and  the  elements 
at  play  require  especial  study  by  sincere,  earnest,  liberal, 
and  humanistic  persons.  The  only  rational  time  for  a  radi- 
cal break  in  the  school  life  of  an  individual  is  when  he  is 
leaving  childhood  and  entering  into  manhood.  The  present 
radical  changes  between  grammar  school  and  high  school, 
and  between  high  school  and  college,  are  artificial,  hence 
wasteful  and  destructive. 


Character  of  the  Intermediate  School 

In  courses  of  study  offered,  the  intermediate  school  should 
closely  resemble  the  high  school.  In  the  manner  of  present- 
ing the  work  in  the  seventh  and  the  low  eighth  grades,  the 
best  grammar  school  methods  should  be  closely  followed. 


252  The  Portland  Survey 

The  transition  from  the  elementary  school  into  the  inter- 
mediate school  should  be  made  gradual  and  natural. 


Location 

The  intermediate  schools  should  be  in  different  sections  of 
the  city,  and  in  the  center  of  a  group  of  elementary  schools, 
to  accommodate  the  children  finishing  the  sixth  grade  in 
these  schools.  To  meet  the  needs  in  Portland,  seven  inter- 
mediate schools  would  be  necessary.  Possibly  the  geog- 
raphy of  the  school  district  is  such  as  to  require  eight.  In 
a  district  so  extensive  as  Portland,  presenting  some  prob- 
lems that  are  rural,  it  will  be  necessary,  for  a  while  at  least, 
to  carry  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  in  a  few  of  the  out- 
lying schools.  It  would  not  be  practicable,  therefore,  to  un- 
dertake wholly  to  eliminate  the  ninth  year  from  the  high 
schools.  In  a  city  growing  as  rapidly  as  Portland,  the  ninth- 
year  pupils  new  to  the  city  will  always  be  sufficient  in  num- 
ber to  justify  continuing  ninth-year  work  in  one  or  two  of 
the  city  high  schools.  From  the  nature  of  the  work  in  the 
intermediate  schools  such  pupils  would  sustain  a  loss  in  con- 
venience and  time  if  compelled  to  adjust  themselves  to  the 
work. 

Buildings 

Ideally  these  should  be  constructed  as  intermediate 
schools.  In  such  case  they  should  be  built  according  to  high 
school  plans,  and  practically  as  high  schools.  Provisions 
for  science  work  would  be  limited  to  rooms  and  equipment 
for  general  elementary  science  or  physiography,  and  shop 
work  would  not  extend  beyond  the  woodshops.  In  one  or 
two  of  these  schools,  however,  provisions  should  be  made 
for  elementary  trade  courses,  and  rooms  provided  and 
equipped  for  printing,  plumbing,  electrical  wiring,  automo- 
bile repairing,  bookbinding,  and  other  trades  in  which  there 
is  good  local  demand  for  men  and  women.  A  cookery  room 
in  some  one  of  these  schools,  depending  upon  the  type  of 


Needed  Reorganizations  and  Expansions         253 

children  attending1,  should  be  specially  fitted  for  teaching 
the  trade  of  chef. 

History,  languages,  English,  mathematics,  commercial 
work,  drawing,  music,  public  speaking  and  entertainments, 
playgrounds  and  gymnasiums,  libraries,  lunchrooms,  etc.,  in 
intermediate  schools  will  require  the  same  kind  of  facilities 
as  are  given  to  high  schools,  although  in  some  cases  not  so 
extensive  facilities. 

When  funds  are  not  available  for  the  erection  of  new  in- 
termediate buildings,  it  is  often  practicable  to  convert  a 
grammar  school  into  an  intermediate  school.  Of  the  eight 
intermediate  schools  in  Los  Angeles,  seven  were  established 
in  what  were  formerly  grammar  school  buildings.  Certain 
changes  and  additions  will  be  necessary,  such  as  enlarging 
and  more  fully  equipping  sloyd  rooms  for  shops  (Portland's 
grammar  school  manual  training  buildings  could  easily  be 
modified  to  meet  such  requirements)  ;  plumbing,  wiring,  and 
equipping  a  room  for  general  science;  providing  an  audi- 
torium, when  not  already  provided  in  the  building.  It  cost 
Los  Angeles,  on  an  average,  approximately  $20,000  a  build- 
ing to  convert  her  grammar  schools  into  intermediate 
schools.  The  most  expensive  of  the  changes,  however, 
would  have  been  equally  necessary  to  make  these  buildings 
ideal  grammar  school  plants. 

Cost 

The  cost  per  pupil  in  the  intermediate  school  should  reach 
a  figure  approximately  halfway  between  that  of  the  gram- 
mar school  and  the  high  school.  If  grammar  school  edu- 
cation costs  $40  per  pupil  and  high  school  $80,  the  inter- 
mediate school  cost  should  be  about  $60. 

Intermediate  School  Purposes 

In  addition  to  the  general  educational  purpose,  the  inter- 
mediate schools  should  set  for  themselves  the  following 
problems : 


254  The  Portland  Survey 

1.  To  enable  boys  and  girls  to  discover  their  powers, 
aptitudes,  and  likes;  or  at  least  to  discover  some  of  them. 
Through  the  development  of  these,  they  may  be  led  to  dis- 
cover other  and  better  ones.    The  first  and  most  important 
thing  for  a  child,  in  early  adolescence,  is  to  become  inter- 
ested in  something  that  will  call  out  his  best  qualities  and 
powers  and  will  develop  his  staying  habits.    Whether  or  not 
he  follows  these  interests  permanently  is  of  minor  impor- 
tance.    His  own  reaction  toward  them  at  the  time  is  of 
most  concern.    The  nonchalant  indifference  of  the  average 
seventh  and  eighth-grade  child  toward  his  work  is  a  menace 
to  his  own  success  and  to  the  stability  of  the  society  of 
which  he  is  to  become  a  part. 

2.  To  prepare  the  pupil  for  high  school  work.     It  is  a 
fact  patent  to  every  practical  student  of  our  educational 
systems  that  this  is  not  being  done  successfully  in  the  aver- 
age grade  school.     In  their  attitude  toward  school  prob- 
lems; in  their  lack  of  sustained  studious  habits;  in  their 
practice  of  moving  rapidly  and  impatiently  from  one  study 
to  another;    in  their  superficial  way  of  handling  all  sub- 
jects; in  their  inability  to  think  consecutively  or  independ- 
ently on  any  subject  —  our  grammar  school  boys  and  girls 
are  laying  foundations  that  must  either  be  repaired  or  de- 
stroyed and  rebuilt  before  they  can  hope  to  become  worthy 
students. 

3.  To  bridge  the  unnecessary  gap  between  the  grammar 
and  the  high  schools.     The  marked  school  death  rate  in 
seventh  and  eighth  grades  throughout  the  country,  in  which 
respect  Portland  forms  no  exception,  can  be  accounted  for 
by  subject-matter  in  the  course  of  study,  methods  of  pres- 
entation, and  general  school  conditions  not  congenial  to 
early  adolescence.     In  the  first  year  of  the  high  school, 
where  it  is  serious,  it  must  be  accounted  for  by  the  wholly 
new  and  foreign  conditions  which  the  child  meets  on  en- 
tering and  for  which  he  has  had  no  adequate  preparation. 
The  intermediate  school,  through  the  adoption  of  modified 


Needed  Reorganizations  and  Expansions         255 

high  school  methods,  prepares  him  to  meet  high  school  con- 
ditions. 

4.  To  economize  the  child's  time.    This  can  be  done  only 
through  elimination  by  substitution  of  both  subjects  and 
subject-matter,  and  by  the  greater  interest  upon  the  part  of 
pupils  that  will  stimulate  greater  activity.     Under  a  wise 
organization  of  the  system  and  proper  organization  and 
presentation  of  courses  of  study,  boys  and  girls  should 
reach  the  tenth  year  of  schooling  with  at  least  a  year  saved 
in  time.     The  practice,  so  common,  of  dawdling  away  the 
time  and  interests  of  children  is  little  short  of  criminal. 

5.  To  organize,  guide,  and  wisely  develop  the  social  in- 
stincts of  the  child.    There  is  no  other  time  in  his  life  when 
his  social  instincts  are  so  important  and  in  such  great  need 
of  care  and  training.     The  grade  school  of  mixed  child- 
hood and  adolescence  offers  limited  opportunity  for  this 
work,  and  the  home  either  does  not  know  enough  to  do  it 
or  refuses  to  assume  responsibility  for  it.    It  is  safe  to  esti- 
mate that  75  per  cent,  of  the  social  difficulties  met  with  in 
the  high  school  originated  when  the  pupil  was  in  the  grade 
schools.    Our  public  schools  can  no  longer  refuse  to  recog- 
nize the  power  of  social  instinct  in  the  education  and  devel- 
opment of  the  child. 

6.  To  conserve  the  interests  of  the  child  not  going  to 
high  school.    This  is  probably  the  most  important  problem 
the  intermediate  school  has  for  solution.    It  is  the  most  dif- 
ficult and  affects  a  large  number  of  boys  and  girls.     If 
properly  worked  out,  it  will  result  in  a  large  percentage  of 
these  boys  and  girls  entering  high  school  at  the  close  of  their 
intermediate  course.     Lack  of  interest  in  work  offered  is 
more  responsible  for  pupils  leaving  school  than  are  eco- 
nomic conditions.    What  are  our  boys  and  girls  prepared  to 
do  upon  leaving  the  eighth  grade?     This  is  a  common 
query,  although  the  answer  is  well  known  to  the  questioner 
and  to  all  others.     The  intermediate  schools  must  prepare 


2 56  The  Portland  Survey 

such  young  people  to  catch  hold  somewhere  in  the  great 
complex  social,  industrial,  and  commercial  world  into  which 
they  pass  upon  leaving  school.  No  other  plan  than  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  intermediate  school  seems  feasible  for 
the  accomplishment  of  this  result. 


Advantages  of  the  Intermediate  School 

Among  the  advantages  not  evident  in  the  purposes  of  the 
intermediate  school  the  following  might  be  stated : 

I.  It  equalizes  opportunities  between  the  grammar  and 
high  schools.  Present  discriminations  are  strikingly  il- 
lustrated by  the  difference  in  cost  per  pupil.  That  there  will 
be  some  increase  in  cost  as  the  pupil  advances  in  his  course 
is  to  be  understood,  but  that  it  should  cost  two  to  two  and 
one  half  times  as  much  to  educate  a  high  school  pupil  as  it 
does  to  educate  a  grammar  grade  pupil  is  absurd,  and  should 
not  be  endorsed  by  educators  nor  tolerated  by  the  public. 

Development  of  the  American  high  school  in  the  Middle 
West  and  the  Far  West  within  recent  years  has  been  remark- 
able, and  the  enrollment  has  grown  proportionately  with 
the  expenditure  upon  buildings,  equipment,  enlargement 
of  courses,  and  salaries  of  teachers.  The  development  of 
the  elementary  schools,  while  important,  has  not  kept  pace 
with  that  of  high  schools.  In  the  upper  grades,  the  progress 
has  been  less  than  anywhere  else.  We  have  reached  a  period 
in  our  educational  history  when  greater  attention  is  de- 
manded for  these  upper  years. 

2.  It  permits  the  logical  development  of  vocational  work. 
The  intermediate  school  is  the  most  effective  means  yet  pro- 
posed for  working  out  the  vocational  problem  in  this  country. 
Distinctly  pre-vocational  schools,  established  in  limited  num- 
bers by  some  American  cities,  are  scarcely  touching  the  great 
pre-vocational  problem,  nor  can  they.  Practically  every 
American  child  must  be  exposed  to  both  manual  and  mental 
activities  and  must  experiment  with  both,  before  anyone, 


Needed  Reorganizations  and,  Expansions         257 

including  himself,  can  determine  his  natural  aptitude.  Vo- 
cational guidance  that  does  not  offer  opportunities  in  courses 
of  study,  found  in  the  school  system  and  available  to  all, 
is  at  least  a  partial  failure.  "  Partial "  might  be  omitted 
from  the  description  of  most  of  this  work.  Nor  will  it  do 
to  postpone  this  experimenting  with  a  child,  or  have  him 
experiment  with  himself  to  find  his  bent,  until  he  reaches 
high  school.  The  work  should  begin  with  adolescence  and 
be  continued  into  the  high  school.  The  wise  and  natural 
distribution  of  population  into  vocations  for  which  they  are 
suited  and  prepared  is  one  of  the  greatest  problems  of  the 
schools  and  of  the  age. 

3.  It  offers  to  pupils  the  advantages  of  departmental 
work,  which   cannot  be  given  with  the   same  degree  of 
efficiency  in  a  regular  grammar  school. 

4.  It  gives  pupils  some  option  as  to  subjects  studied. 

5.  It  simplifies  the  problem  with  repeaters,  since  the 
child  is  required  to  go  over,  the  second  time,  only  that  work 
in  which  he  has  made  a  failure. 

6.  It  results  in  keeping  a  large  number  of  pupils  in  school 
for  an  additional  year.    Desire  to  remain  and  graduate  with 
their  class,  or  to  carry  a  study  to  the  point  where  it  may  be 
used  in  an  earning  capacity,  will  keep  in  school  a  majority 
of  those  who  would  otherwise  drop  out  at  completion  of  the 
eighth  grade.    In  Portland,  with  the  compulsory  period  ex- 
tending up  to  the  sixteenth  birthday,  such  schools  would 
offer  splendid  opportunities  for  usefulness. 

7.  It  postpones  for  one  year  the  time  when  the  child  will 
be  required  to  cross  the  city  to  reach  high  school.    This  saves 
carfare,  time,  and  sometimes  character. 

For  the  sake  of  increasing  the  efficiency  of  its  schools,  it 
is  strongly  hoped  that  Portland  will  early  establish  the  inter- 
mediate school  as  a  part  of  its  educational  organization. 


258  The  Portland  Survey 

Teachers  for  the  Intermediate  Schools 

As  the  work  in  intermediate  schools  is  departmental,  es- 
pecially trained  teachers  should  be  employed.  Their  educa- 
tion should  be  as  thorough  and  comprehensive  as  that  of 
high  school  teachers,  and  their  salaries  should  be  the  same  as 
paid  to  high  school  teachers.  The  strongest  teachers  in  the 
department  should  be  assigned  to  intermediate  work.  It 
requires  a  better  teacher  to  teach  seventh-grade  pupils  suc- 
cessfully than  to  teach  twelfth-grade.  Only  the  big  teacher 
is  simple  enough  in  her  presentation  to  be  understood  by 
younger  children.  The  teacher  of  intermediate  grades  will 
be  better  fitted  for  her  work  if  she  has  had  experience  in 
grade  schools.  So  would  high  school  teachers.  Teachers 
must  be  brought  to  see  the  importance  of  intermediate  work 
and  be  put  in  sympathy  with  it.  This  is  not  always  easy  to 
accomplish,  despite  the  fact  that  the  truth  of  the  need  must 
be  self-evident.  Teachers  who  would  have  their  importance 
measured  by  the  grade  in  which  they  work  should  begin 
with  the  first  grade  if  they  would  be  greatest. 

The  best  principals  of  the  city  should  be  placed  over  the 
intermediate  schools,  and  their  salaries  should  approximate 
those  of  high  school  principals.  The  initial  difficulties  of 
reorganization  are  greatest,  and  call  for  the  strongest  men 
and  women.  No  system  should  undertake  to  establish  a 
system  of  intermediate  schools  with  mediocre  teachers.  It 
is  better  to  establish  the  schools  one  at  a  time,  or  to  wait. 


Opposition  to  Intermediate  Schools 

If  the  plan  of  organizing  intermediate  schools  is  adopted, 
both  the  Superintendent  and  the  Board  of  School  Directors 
must  be  prepared  to  meet  certain  opposition,  to  which  they 
must  turn  a  deaf  ear.  Every  new  movement  for  the  im- 
provement of  our  educational  system,  as  in  other  affairs  of 
human  life,  must  be  prepared  to  meet  with  opposition  from 


Needed  Reorganizations  and  Expansions         259 

those  who  do  not  understand  the  nature  of  the  proposal,  or 
whose  personal  and  selfish  interests  are  touched.  Opposi- 
tion to  the  intermediate  schools  will  come  chiefly  from  three 
sources : 

1.  From  principals  of  elementary  schools  who  are  not 
chosen  for  the  new  positions  and  who  object  to  losing  "  the 
pride  of  their  schools."     One  would  sometimes  be  led  to 
think  that  schools  exist  to  glorify  principals,  instead  of  to  do 
the  best  possible  for  the  children  in  them.     Owing  to  the 
Portland  salary  schedule,  there  would  probably  be  some  op- 
position from  principals  who  would  object  to  having  classes 
taken  from  their  schools.     This  matter  would  soon  settle 
itself  in  such  a  growing  city,  as  other  classes  would  soon 
take  the  places  of  those  removed. 

2.  Opposition  from  teachers  in  upper  grades,  who  are 
not  qualified  to  remain  in  intermediate  schools  and  who 
would  regard  the  dignity  of  their  position  as  lowered  if  put 
into  lower  grades.     The  Portland  salary  schedule,  with  its 
greatest  pay  for  upper  grade  work,  would  cause  such  teach- 
ers to  suffer  a  decrease  in  salary,  unless  adjustments  were 
made,  and  this  would  naturally  cause  further  objection. 

3.  Opposition  from  parents  who  have  children  below  the 
seventh  grade  in  a  school  which  is  to  be  rebuilt  for  in- 
termediate school  purposes.     In  such  cases  it  is  sometimes 
wise  to  organize  a  primary  school  with  the  first,  second, 
and  possibly  the  third  grades,  either  in  the  same  build- 
ing or  in  temporary  buildings  located  on  the  school  grounds, 
or  in  the  immediate  neighborhood.    In  most  cases  these  can 
gradually  be  abandoned,  unless  distances  are  such  as  to  work 
a  hardship  on  the  little  folks  compelled  to  attend  another 
school.     Opposition  will  disappear  soon  after  the  interme- 
diate school  is  in  operation.    The  enthusiasm  of  children  at- 
tending the  school  and  the  pride  of  the  neighborhood  in  it 
will  be  strong  enough  to  overcome  the  first  dissatisfaction  of 
those  who  opposed  it. 


260 


The  Portland  Survey 


Courses  of  Study 

Courses  offered  should,  in  the  main,  meet  the  require- 
ments for  carrying  out  the  purposes  stated.  They  should  be 
wide  enough  in  range  to  grip  somewhere  the  interests  of 
every  child.  They  should  offer  high  school  work  in  lan- 
guages, commercial  subjects,  drawing,  music,  mathematics, 
science,  home  economics,  history,  literature,  and  shop  work. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  intermediate  school  is  a  high  school 
moved  to  the  seventh  grade,  with  due  regard  for  the  limited 
experiences  and  training  of  the  child  of  twelve  or  thirteen 
years  of  age. 

To  give  a  clearer  idea  as  to  the  nature  of  the  intermediate 
school,  and  to  show  better  its  advantages  over  the  grade 
school  as  an  educational  institution,  the  following  outlines 
for  a  general  commercial  and  a  vocational  course  are  pre- 
sented : 1 

COURSES  OF  STUDY  FOR  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS 


I.    GENERAL  COURSE 


Seventh  Year 


Required  Subjects 
English 
Arithmetic 
Geography,  B  7 
History,  A  7 
Physical  Training 
Music 
Drawing 
Penmanship 
Manual  Training: 

Girls  —  Cooking 
Sewing 

Boys  —  Woodwork 


Elective  Subjects 
Select  one  of  the  following: 
French 
German 
Spanish 
Latin 

Bookkeeping 
Stenography 


(Note :  Two  languages  to  be  selected 
only  by  permission.) 


1  Reference  should  also  be  made  to  the  outlines  for  literary  and  pre- voca- 
tional intermediate  school  courses,  submitted  by  Superintendent  Spaulding,  and 
reproduced  in  Chapter  IX,  pages  211,  213  to  214. 


Needed  Reorganizations  and  Expansions         261 


Eighth  Year 


Required  Subjects 
English 

History  and  Civics 
Physical  Training 
Oral  English,  B  8 
Music,  A  8 

Physiology  and  Hygiene 
Manual  Training: 

Girls  —  Cooking 
Sewing 

Boys  — Woodwork 


Required  Subjects 
English 

Physical  Training 
Music  or  Oral  English 


Elective  Subjects 

5 

Select  two  of  the  following: 

5 

French 

5 

2 

German 

5 

2 

Spanish 

5 

2 

Latin 

5 

2 

Bookkeeping 

5 

Stenography 

5 

2 

Mathematics: 

2 

Arithmetic,  B  8 

5 

4 

Algebra,  A  8 

5 

Drawing:  Free-hand  or  Mechanical 

5 

Ninth  Year 

Elective  Subjects 

5 

Select  three  of  the  following: 

2 

French,  German,  Spanish,  or  Lathi 

5 

2 

Bookkeeping 

5 

Stenography 

5 

Algebra 

5 

Commercial  Arithmetic 

5 

Ancient  History 

5 

General  Science 

5 

Manual  Training: 

Girls  —  Cooking  or  Sewing 

5 

Boys  —  Woodwork 

5 

Drawing:  Free-hand  or  Mechanical 

5 

II.    COMMERCIAL  COURSE 

Seventh  Year 


Required  Subjects 

English  5 

Arithmetic  5 

Bookkeeping  5 

Stenography  S 

Penmanship  2 

Geography,  67  S 

History,  A  7  5 

Physical  Training  i 


Elective  Subjects     . 
Select  one  of  the  following: 

French  S 

German  5 

Spanish  S 

Music  and  Manual  Training  6 


262 


The  Portland  Survey 


Eighth  Year 


Required  Subjects 
English 

History  and  Civics 
Bookkeeping 
Stenography 
Penmanship 

Physiology  and  Hygiene 
Physical  Training 


Elective  Subjects 
Select  one  of  the  following: 

French 

German 

Spanish 

Oral  English,  B  8;    Music,  A  8; 
and  Manual  Training 


Ninth  Year 


Required  Subjects 
English 

Commercial  Arithmetic 
Bookkeeping 
Stenography 
Physical  Training 


Elective  Subjects 
Select  two  of  the  following: 
French  5 
German  5 
Spanish  5 
Music  or  Oral  English  and  Man- 
ual Training  6 
General  Science  5 
Algebra  5 
Penmanship  5 


.    VOCATIONAL  COURSE 

Seventh  Year 


Required  Subjects 
Same  as  General  Course 


Elective  Subjects 
Same  as  General  Course 


Required  Subjects 
English 
Manual  Training: 

Girls  —  Cooking 
Sewing 

Boys  — Woodwork 
Drawing: 

Girls  —  Free-hand 

Boys  —  Mechanical 
General  Science  (includes  Hygiene) 
Physical  Training 


Eighth  Year 

Elective  Subjects 

5 

Select  one  of  the  following 

U.  S.  History 

5 

French 

5 

German 

10 

Spanish 

Bookkeeping 

5 

Algebra 

5 

0 

5 

2 

Needed  Reorganizations  and  Expansions         263 


Ninth  Year 


Required  Subjects 

English  5 

Manual  Training: 

Girls  —  Cooking  or  Sewing  10 

Boys — Woodwork  10 

Drawing: 

Girls  —  Free-hand  5 

Boys  —  Mechanical  5 

General  Science  (including  Hy- 
giene) : 

Boys — Elem.  Physics  5 

Girls  —  Elem.  Chemistry  5 

Physical  Training  2 


Elective  subjects 
Select  one  of  the  following: 
Ancient  History 
French 
German 
Spanish 
Bookkeeping 
Algebra 


4.     HIGH    SCHOOLS 

In  addition  to  reorganizing  the  high  school  work  and  the 
School  of  Trades  as  suggested  in  Chapters  IX  and  X,  the 
school  authorities  should  keep  in  mind  plans  for  ultimately 
extending  the  high  school  to  include  a  thirteenth  and  four- 
teenth year.  The  thirteenth  is  already  provided,  in  name. 
For  this  work  good  courses,  covering  a  wide  range,  and 
comparable  to  the  first  two  years  of  college  work,  should  be 
provided  to  meet  the  needs : 

i.  Of  those  who  are  intending  to  go  to  college.  These 
students  may  complete  at  home  their  junior  college  work, 
which  is  more  nearly  high  school  than  college  work,  do  it 
under  better  conditions  of  instruction,  and  save  expense  to 
parents  and  the  public.  This  would  result  in  a  greatly  in- 
creased college  attendance,  since  two  years  away  from  home 
and  home  influences,  at  heavy  expense,  is  not  nearly  half 
so  long  or  so  expensive  as  four  years.  It  would  also  result 
in  many  remaining  two  years  longer  in  the  schools.  The 
high  schools,  with  their  wide  range  of  subjects,  could  hold 
out  strong  inducements  to  graduates  who  would  not  attend 
school  longer  under  less  favorable  circumstances. 


264  The  Portland  Survey 

2.  Of  those  who  do  not  intend  to  go  to  college.  With 
the  introduction  of  the  intermediate  and  the  extension  of 
the  high  school,  practically  eight  years  of  high  school  work 
is  offered  at  home.  This  makes  it  possible  to  establish 
courses  of  study,  complete  within  themselves,  and  of  such 
a  character  that  their  completion  will  fit  young  people  to 
give  a  good  account  of  themselves  in  the  industrial  and 
technical  vocations. 


TYPES  OF  ADDITIONAL  SCHOOLS  NEEDED 

In  addition  to  a  fundamental  reorganization  of  the  school 
system,  along  the  lines  just  outlined,  to  enable  the  schools 
better  to  meet  the  educational  needs  of  the  children  of  the 
city,  the  Board  of  School  Directors  should  also  add  to  the 
present  school  system  a  number  of  special-type  schools,  for 
the  purpose  of  better  meeting  the  needs  of  classes  of  chil- 
dren for  whom  the  present  grade  schools  are  at  best  poorly 
adapted.  In  Chapter  XIV  (pages  364  to  368),  Dr.  Terman 
has  treated,  in  some  detail,  the  need  of  special  classes  for 
deaf,  blind,  crippled,  stammering,  backward,  and  feeble- 
minded children,  so  that  these  will  not  be  considered  here. 
The  remaining  special-type  schools  which  I  would  recom- 
mend are :  the  ungraded  room,  truant  schools,  vacation 
schools,  night  schools  and  other  means  of  extending  the 
school  time,  art  schools,  neighborhood  schools,  and  a  school 
for  janitors. 

I.     THE   UNGRADED   ROOM 

Portland's  scheme  of  grading,  classifying,  and  promoting 
pupils,  if  effectively  worked  out,  should  minimize  the  need 
of  ungraded  rooms.  I  was  not  so  favorably  impressed  with 
the  results  of  the  scheme,  however,  as  with  the  scheme  it- 
self. Even  though  it  could  be  effectually  worked  out,  there 
would  still  remain  an  important  percentage  of  boys  and  girls 
sufficiently  irregular  to  require  a  teacher  especially  qualified 
to  discover  and  develop  them.  Experience  is  an  important 


Needed  Reorganizations  and  Expansions         265 

requisite  for  such  a  teacher,  but  a  keen  perception  of  human 
nature  and  broad  sympathy  with  human  qualities  are  much 
more  important. 

Each  large  school  should  have  a  primary  and  a  grammar 
grade  ungraded  room.  Smaller  schools  could  be  managed 
with  one  ungraded  room.  The  enrollment  should  not  ex- 
ceed eighteen. 

These  rooms  should  not  be  used  as  a  depositary  for 
troublesome  pupils  or  considered  as  a  means  of  handling 
backward  or  defective  children.  While  these  types  will  nat- 
urally be  well  represented  in  the  ungraded  rooms,  the  child 
who  is  irregular  because  further  advanced  in  some  of  his 
work  should  also  find  these  rooms  profitable  places  in  which 
to  work.  Unless  care  is  exercised,  teachers  will  unload 
their  difficult  problems  on  the  ungraded  room,  but  will  keep 
the  promising  pupil,  although  irregular  in  his  classification. 
One  of  the  neglected  phases  of  our  educational  work  is 
proper  provision  for  the  exceptionally  bright  child. 

Ungraded  rooms  will  appear  to  be  expensive  because  of 
the  limited  number  of  pupils  per  teacher  and  the  extra  sal- 
ary the  teacher  should  receive.  The  practice  of  measuring 
the  expense  of  a  school  system  by  the  annual  cost  per  pupil 
is  palpably  fallacious.  Two  most  important  items  are  omit- 
ted :  ( i )  the  percentage  of  pupils  who  are  regularly  passed 
through  the  school  without  loss  of  time  in  repeating  grades 
or  subjects,  and  (2)  what  they  are  getting  in  return  for  the 
years  spent  in  school.  The  system  that  carries  its  elementary 
pupils  at  an  annual  cost  of  $30,  but  with  a  large  percentage 
repeating  one,  two,  or  three  years  of  work,  is  expensive 
from  a  financial  point  of  view,  to  say  nothing  of  the  loss  of 
self-confidence,  hope,  ambition,  time,  and  life  of  the  pupils 
failing.  The  cost  might  be  reduced  to  $15  or  $20,  and  still 
be  appallingly  expensive  because  it  wasted  the  time  of  chil- 
dren and  the  public's  money,  and  gave  little  or  nothing  in 
return.  Some  systems  are  using  the  Batavia  plan,  instead 
of  the  ungraded  room.  A  special  teacher  is  employed  and 
assigned  to  a  room  to  which  the  irregular  pupils  are  sent. 


266  The  Portland  Survey 

It  is  her  duty  to  balance  them  and  put  them  in  line  with 
regular  grade  work.  This  plan  has  some  merits,  especially 
in  high  school  work,  where  it  should  be  freely  used.  It 
lacks,  however,  the  personal-influence  quality  so  important 
in  work  of  this  kind  with  elementary  school  children. 


2.     TRUANT   SCHOOLS 

Portland  should  organize  four  or  more  truant  schools, 
distributed  throughout  the  city,  and  a  central  school  to  which 
the  boys  from  these  schools  may  be  sent  when  prepared  to 
leave  the  district  truant  school.  These  schools  must  act  as 
the  eddies  to  catch  the  driftwood  of  the  educational  stream, 
where  it  may  be  treated  long  enough  to  risk  it  again  in  the 
main  current.  Parenthetically,  it  might  be  observed  that 
human  driftwood  is  worth  saving,  and  much  of  it  is  the  best 
afloat,  depending  somewhat,  of  course,  upon  the  character 
of  the  main  current.  To  the  truant  schools  are  sent  those  so 
out  of  harmony  with  the  conditions  that  prevail  in  the  regu- 
lar schools,  that  they  cannot  be  handled  with  economy  by 
regular  teachers  and  in  regular  classrooms.  Those  who  are 
chronically  disobedient  and  disorderly  present  special  prob- 
lems, requiring  special  study  and  treatment. 

There  are  two  ways  of  attacking  the  problems.  One  is  to 
subject  the  boy,  in  the  truant  school,  to  such  unpleasant 
treatment  that  he  will  gladly  return  to  the  regular  school 
and  submit  to  conditions  imposed  upon  him.  The  other  way 
is  to  recognize  him  as  a  highly  specialized,  poorly  organized 
individual,  whose  powers  of  correlation  are  weakened;  to 
impose  upon  him  conditions  so  few  in  number  and  loose  in 
character  that  he  will  find  more  difficulty  in  violating  than 
in  observing  them ;  to  treat  him  with  such  genuine  and  tol- 
erant kindness  and  consideration  that  he  must  recognize  a 
friend  interested  in  his  welfare,  and  to  discover  the  things 
in  which  he  is  already  interested,  upon  which  the  building 
of  his  character  may  be  started. 

I  advocate  the  latter  plan.    This  initial  treatment  must  be 


Needed  Reorganizations  and  Expansions         267 

largely  humanistic,  but  sympathy,  kindness,  and  interest 
must  lead  the  boy  toward  legitimate  and  profitable  work  in 
which  he  takes  an  interest  and  which  he  can  do  with  credit. 
The  transition  from  the  undesirable  and  unprofitable  must 
be  gradual,  in  some  cases  slow,  but  it  must  be  constant  and 
sure.  For  this  reason  boys  should  not  be  kept  too  long  in 
the  local  truant  school,  in  which  organization,  equipment, 
and  teaching  must  necessarily  be  simple  and  limited.  As 
soon  as  they  have  discovered  that  the  world  is  not  their 
enemy,  but  is  friendly,  that  right  behavior  pays,  and  that 
there  is  something  worthy  which  they  can  do  when  prepared, 
these  boys  should  be  sent  to  a  central  special  school. 

This  school  should  differ  from  the  local  school  in  closer 
organization  and  enlarged  opportunities  for  the  boy  to  de- 
velop his  interests  and  efficiency.  It  should  have  music,  art, 
and  manual  work  as  its  chief  characteristic  phases.  Its  mu- 
sic should  consist  largely  of  chorus,  glee  club,  mandolin, 
band,  and  orchestral  work.  A  large  percentage  of  boys 
who  find  their  way  into  schools  of  this  type  are  musical 
by  nature,  and  music  offers  the  best  means  of  softening  and 
refining  their  natures.  The  right  kind  of  music  teacher 
could  lead  these  boys  to  sing  or  play  themselves  into  heaven, 
which,  I  take  it,  is  a  state  of  being  rather  than  a  geograph- 
ical location.  Art  work  should  consist  largely  of  illustrat- 
ing, cartooning,  work  in  metal,  leather,  and  clay.  Manual 
work  should  include  cabinet  work,  forging,  waiting,  hotel 
cooking,  printing,  elementary  electricity,  cobbling,  pipe-fit- 
ting, automobile  repairing,  chauffering,  and  gardening. 
What  English  work  is  done  should  be  largely  public  reading, 
orating,  debating,  and  dramatics,  with  a  wide  range  of 
suitable  books  for  home  and  leisure  reading.  The  school 
should  be  liberally  provided  with  playground,  gymnasium, 
and  swimming-pool  facilities. 

From  this  central  special  school,  boys  should  be  grad- 
uated, when  prepared,  into  trade  schools,  high  schools,  and 
technical  high  schools,  according  to  the  interests  and  pow- 
ers they  have  developed.  Such  a  scheme  of  handling  irregu- 


268  The  Portland  Survey 

lar  boys  should  result  in  saving  practically  all,  and  its  re- 
turns to  Portland  would  make  it  one  of  the  most  attractive 
investments  the  city  could  undertake.  To  secure  qualified 
teachers  for  these  schools  is  a  difficult  thing.  Unless  those 
with  comprehension  and  a  vision  can  be  secured,  however, 
the  schools  will  fail. 

How  to  deal  with  girls  of  this  type  is  a  much  more  diffi- 
cult problem.  The  same  general  principles  are  involved, 
however,  and  the  problem  should  be  worked  out  along  the 
same  lines.  Fortunately  there  are  not  so  many  bad  (?)  girls 
as  boys,  or,  if  there  are,  society  has  a  more  effective,  al- 
though a  more  unnatural,  way  of  compelling  them  to  con- 
ceal their  badness. 


3.     VACATION    SCHOOLS 

What  to  do  with  the  leisure  time  of  the  city-bred  Ameri- 
can boy  and  girl  is  one  of  the  serious  modern  questions. 
The  average  city  parent  cannot  or  does  not  find  profitable 
employment  for  his  children  during  school  vacations.  As 
a  consequence  they  choose  their  own,  which  is  usually  un- 
profitable, and  often  harmful.  The  solution  of  the  diffi- 
culty probably  lies  in  city  schools  operating  throughout  the 
year.  For  a  while,  at  least,  attendance  at  summer  school  will 
remain  optional.  Portland  has  already  recognized  the  im- 
portance of  summer  schools,  and  the  experiment  with  them, 
I  understand,  has  been  successful.  Portland  shares,  with 
all  other  cities,  the  need  of  developing  and  enlarging  these 
schools. 

There  are  two  distinct  types  of  vacation  schools  develop- 
ing in  this  country.  The  first  undertakes  to  offer  oppor- 
tunity to  those  who  wish  to  make  credits  in  one  or  more  sub- 
jects, either  that  they  may  enter  school  in  the  fall,  regularly, 
with  their  class,  or  may  forge  ahead  in  one  or  more  sub- 
jects, and  finish  their  school  work  in  advance  of  their  class. 
Either  motive  is  stimulating,  and  the  results  highly  gratify- 
ing. The  second  type  of  vacation  school  concerns  itself  more 


Needed  Reorganizations  and  Expansions        269 

with  occupying  the  time  of  the  child  in  some  useful  con- 
structive work,  and  gives  but  scant  attention  to  regular 
school  work  and  methods.  Portland  has  not  yet  organized 
this  second  type  of  school.  I  believe  the  city  should  do  so. 

The  second  type  of  school  is  more  educational  than  the 
first,  and  acts  as  a  most  effective  means  of  educating  teach- 
ers and  principals.  If  the  vacation  schools  follow  regular 
school  work  and  methods  exclusively,  they  can  but  partially 
succeed  in  meeting  the  problem,  which  is  largely  one  of 
keeping  children  interested  and  occupied  in  some  activities 
that  will  contribute  toward  their  development  and  add  to 
their  efficiency  as  citizens.  The  negative  side  is  that  the 
vacation  school  prevents  their  engaging  in  activities  that 
will  neutralize  their  qualities  and  powers  of  good  citizen- 
ship. How  to  keep  pupils  in  school,  attendance  upon  which 
is  voluntary,  can  be  successfully  answered  only  by  those  who 
are  thinking  more  deeply  than  is  required  merely  to  help  in 
carrying  out  a  prescribed  course  of  study  or  to  work  in  a 
system  already  established. 

The  question  concerning  a  school  of  this  type  will  nat- 
urally be,  "  How  does  it  profit  a  child  educationally,  and 
aid  him  in  his  progress  through  school,  to  spend  his  time  in 
a  summer  school,  singing,  dancing,  playing,  swimming, 
drawing,  cooking,  sewing,  gardening,  and  working  in  wood, 
metal,  or  clay?  "  Those  who  measure  the  educational  prog- 
ress of  a  child  by  the  rapidity  with  which  he  passes  through 
the  grades,  would  find  little  to  commend  in  this  kind  of 
school.  Those  who  look  upon  education  as  a  developmental 
process  will  welcome  the  opportunity  offered  to  diversify  the 
system  of  education  by  a  more  liberal  introduction  of  life 
elements. 

4.     NIGHT   SCHOOLS 

Nowhere  in  this  country  has  sufficient  thought  been  given 
to  night  school  work  or  adequate  provision  made  for  it. 
Portland  should  enlarge  this  phase  of  its  educational  work 


2  ;o  The  Portland  Survey 

by  opening  more  centers  throughout  the  city,  and  changing 
and  diversifying  the  work  given. 

The  class  of  pupils  that  will  take  advantage  of  night 
school  work  is  strongly  influenced  by  the  geographical  ele- 
ment. Foreigners  are  reluctant  to  leave  the  neighborhood 
in  which  they  live  and  are  acquainted,  and  laboring  people 
seek  either  rest  or  recreation,  unless  the  school  is  near  and 
it  requires  little  effort  to  reach  it.  The  neighborhood  mov- 
ing-picture show  and  mission  church  illustrate  this. 

The  courses  offered  should  be  diversified  more,  and  some- 
what of  a  change  made  in  the  presentation  of  the  work. 
Portland  is  attempting  to  provide  only  for  those  who  wish 
to  finish  the  work  offered  in  the  regular  grades  of  the  day 
schools  or  who  must  complete  this  work.  This  is  covering 
but  a  fractional  part  of  the  work  that  should  be  done. 
Classes  for  foreigners  in  English,  elementary  mathematics, 
spelling,  American  history  and  civics,  elementary  law,  etc., 
should  be  added  to  the  subjects  offered.  Special  classes 
for  foreigners  preparing  for  the  examination  to  become 
American  citizens  should  be  provided.  Arrangements  can 
sometimes  be  made  with  officers  and  courts  to  accept  this 
work  in  lieu  of  an  examination.  The  elementary  night 
schools  should  offer  commercial  work  in  bookkeeping,  ste- 
nography and  typewriting,  penmanship,  arithmetic,  and 
business  correspondence. 

Where  possible,  the  city  library  should  be  asked  to 
establish  at  the  evening  school  a  branch  library,  which  should 
be  kept  open  on  certain  nights  of  the  week  and  be  furnished 
with  books  that  will  be  read  by  people  of  the  neighborhood. 
To  be  reasonably  efficient,  libraries,  like  schools,  must  study 
the  neighborhood  they  serve.  This  we  understand  the  Port- 
land library  has  done  in  a  remarkably  efficient  manner. 

Entertainments 

The  entertainment  feature  should  be  developed  in  the 
Portland  night  schools.  Some  cities  are  making  this  a 


Needed  Reorganizations  and  Expansions         271 

separate  feature  of  school  work,  ofttimes  holding  enter- 
tainments in  buildings  in  which  there  is  no  night  school 
work  offered.  This  plan  I  believe  to  be  illogical  and  waste- 
ful, since  entertainments  should  be  diverting,  restful,  and 
relaxing,  but  first  of  all  educational.  The  social  feature, 
that  of  bringing  people  of  the  neighborhood  together,  is 
probably  the  most  important  part  of  neighborhood  enter- 
tainments given  in  the  schools.  All  these  features  can  be 
best  understood  and  provided  for  by  a  principal  and  corps 
of  night  school  teachers  who  have  made  a  study  of  the 
neighborhood  and  understand  the  elements  that  compose 
it.  In  addition  to  these,  one  of  the  strongest  reasons  for 
combining  the  entertainment  feature  with  the  other  night 
school  activities  is  that  people  who  come  to  be  entertained 
will  become  interested  in  some  subject  or  subjects  offered 
and  will  join  classes  for  regular  night  school  work.  A  live 
principal,  who  is  allowed  to  choose  his  teachers  and  use  the 
entertainment  feature  in  building  his  night  school,  is  in 
position  to  make  a  lasting  contribution  to  the  cause  of  edu- 
cation and  to  wield  a  powerful  influence  on  the  neighborhood 
in  which  he  is  permitted  to  work. 

These  entertainments  should  include:  moving-picture 
shows,  stereopticon  travel  talks,  lectures  on  live  topics,  for- 
mation of  choral  clubs,  glee  clubs,  mandolin  clubs,  orches- 
tras, boys'  and  girls'  literary  and  debating  clubs,  neighbor- 
hood improvement  societies,  reading  clubs,  games,  boxing, 
folk-dancing,  and  social  dancing.  It  should  be  fully  recog- 
nized that  the  introduction  of  social  dancing  in  the  school 
building  will  meet  with  vigorous,  sometimes  influential,  op- 
position from  those  who  are  more  concerned  with  maintain- 
ing a  creed  or  a  sentiment  than  they  are  with  working  out 
a  neighborhood  and  social  problem.  This  opposition  can 
often  be  neutralized  by  the  appointment  of  a  civic  com- 
mittee to  cooperate  in  the  work  of  the  school,  the  members 
of  which  shall  effectively  represent  the  opposing  elements. 
The  leaders  of  such  opposition  mean  well,  and  the  impor- 
tant thing  is  to  get  them  to  study  and  understand  the 
problem. 


272  The  Portland  Survey 

Night  High  School  Extension 

The  night  high  school  of  Portland  should  enlarge  and 
modify  its  courses  to  offer  material  and  substantial  help  to 
those  engaged  in : 

1.  Electrical  work,  such  as  wiring,  telephony,  and 

even  electrical  engineering. 

2.  Mechanical  work,  such  as  drafting,  machine-shop 

work,  designing,  installing,  engineering. 

3.  Architecture,  such  as  drafting,  tracing,  designing, 

stress,  strength  of  materials,  writing  specifica- 
tions, etc. 

4.  Business  practice,  such  as  clerking,   accounting, 

salesmanship,  advertising,  clerical  work,  etc. 

5.  Home-keeping,    such    as    cooking,    dressmaking, 

dry-cleaning,  laundering,  tailoring,  millinery, 
home  accounting,  food  chemistry,  etc. 

6.  The   trades  —  carpentry,   bricklaying,    plumbing, 

dealing  with  materials,  cost,  source  of  supply, 
principles  involved,  qualities  necessary  to  suc- 
ceed, field  of  promotion,  wages,  etc. 

7.  Contracting,  involving  accounting,  labor,  source 

and  cost  of  supplies,  transportation,  margins,  etc. 

The  work  offered  should,  in  nature,  be  more  theoretical 
and  scientific  than  practical,  and  should  supplement  the  work 
of  the  student  who  is  engaged  during  the  day  in  the  practi- 
cal phase  of  the  work.  To  develop  the  work  fully  will  re- 
quire an  expenditure  of  time  and  money,  but  it  will  pay 
great  dividends  to  the  city,  if  properly  worked  out.  All  of 
these  suggested  lines  of  work  are  legitimate  parts  of  a  sys- 
tem of  public  education. 

5.    EXTENSION  OF  THE  SCHOOL  TIME 

The  school  day  is  too  short,  the  number  of  school  days 
per  year  too  few.  School  plants  cost  money;  economy  in 


Needed  Reorganizations  and  Expansions         273 

their  use  requires  longer  days  and  more  of  them.  Custom 
is  the  only  reason  for  opening  school  at  9  A.  M.,  closing  at 
3  P.  M.,  and  shutting  the  schoolhouse  Friday  afternoon 
to  open  again  Monday  morning.  On  the  basis  of  an  eight- 
hour  day,  five  and  a  half  days  in  the  week,  almost  50  per 
cent,  of  loss  in  time  is  sustained  in  our  school  system,  not 
taking  into  account  vacations  and  holidays.  If  these  should 
become  a  part  of  the  problem,  the  loss  would  approximate 
65  per  cent. 

Most  grammar  school  buildings,  and  practically  all  high 
school  buildings,  should  keep  their  doors  and  some  of  their 
departments  open  from  8  until  5  every  week  day,  and  should 
close  only  on  Sundays  and  legal  holidays.  Attendance 
should,  for  a  while  at  least,  be  optional  and  work  offered 
to  upper-grade  pupils  only.  This  work  should  consist 
largely  of  manual  training,  music,  art,  local  excursions, 
physical  exercises,  and  play.  Recent  development  of  the 
school  playground  is  most  gratifying,  but  it  should  be 
accompanied  with  an  equal  development  of  manual  work 
for  adolescent  boys  and  girls,  giving  them  an  option  between 
work  and  play. 

This  extended  day  should  be  introduced  gradually.  At 
first  the  sloyd  rooms,  shops,  and  cooking  and  sewing  rooms 
should  be  opened  in  a  few  of  the  buildings,  and  the  teachers 
given  extra  pay  for  doing  the  work.  To  be  sure,  many  of 
the  teachers  are  remaining  overtime  without  pay,  with  the 
pupils  who  care  to  stay  for  extra  work ;  but  to  put  it  on  a 
substantial  and  regular  footing,  the  work  should  have  finan- 
cial consideration.  This  need  not  be  burdensome,  as  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  teachers  who  would  not  otherwise  remain 
regularly  will  do  so  for  a  small  additional  sum,  and  those 
who  would  remain  without  it  deserve  it  most. 

6.     SPECIAL   ART   SCHOOLS 

It  would  prove  a  profitable  educational  investment  if 
Portland  were  to  establish  two  special  art  centers,  one  for 


274  The  Portland  Survey 

elementary  and  the  other  for  intermediate  and  high  school 
pupils  who  show  especial  aptitude  for  drawing.  Such  pupils 
should  be  given  one  or  two  full  half-days  per  week  for  this 
work,  which  should  be  recognized  in  lieu  of  other  work  in 
promoting  them.  The  most  capable  and  inspirational  teach- 
ers available  should  be  in  charge  of  this  work. 

7.     NEIGHBORHOOD   OR  DISTRICT   SCHOOLS 

The  neighborhood  school  is  practically  a  new  thing  in  edu- 
cation, although  the  principles  underlying  it  have  been  rec- 
ognized in  many  school  systems.  The  term  is  here  em- 
ployed to  designate  a  school  organized  especially  to  study 
and  meet  the  needs  of  its  pupils  and  their  parents,  taking 
into  account  their  heredity,  experiences,  and  environment. 
Portland  could  use  at  least  two  such  schools  with  advantage 
—  one  to  the  north  and  one  to  the  south  of  the  present  busi- 
ness center,  on  the  West  Side. 

A  brief  description  of  one  such  school,  which  has  been  in 
operation  for  five  years,  will  serve  to  illustrate  what  is 
meant.  The  pupils  attending  this  school  are  practically  all 
foreigners,  or  of  foreign  parentage.  Italians  predominate, 
although  there  are  many  Mexicans,  and  some  persons  of 
almost  every  nationality.  The  distinguishing  features  of 
the  school  are  as  follows : 

i.  There  is  a  day  nursery,  built,  equipped,  and  conducted 
by  the  Board  of  Education.  The  building  has  five  small  rest 
or  sleeping  rooms,  furnished  with  little  beds,  where  the  babies 
are  put  away  when  they  grow  tired  and  sleepy ;  toilets  for 
little  folks ;  a  bathroom  in  which  each  child  is  given  a  bath 
at  least  once  a  week  —  the  only  one  some  of  them  ever  get ; 
a  small  dining  room,  with  little  tables  and  chairs,  and  a 
small  kitchen,  where  warm  lunches  are  prepared  for  them 
two  or  three  times  each  day.  The  food  for  these  lunches 
is  contributed  by  merchants,  through  the  solicitation  of  a 
woman's  club;  all  other  expenses,  including  the  hiring  of 
a  nurse,  are  met  by  the  Board  of  Education.  In  the  main 


Needed  Reorganizations  and  Expansions         275 

room  of  the  nursery  children  play  with  tops,  blocks,  etc., 
and  a  small  yard  outside  is  fenced  off  from  the  main  school 
grounds.  This  is  partly  covered  with  a  roof  to  protect  the 
children  from  the  sun,  and  is  supplied  with  abundant  sand 
in  which  the  little  people  play. 

The  demand  for  day  nurseries  arose  from  economic  con- 
ditions at  home,  which  compelled  mothers  to  be  away  part 
or  all  of  the  day,  helping  to  earn  a  living  for  the  family. 
The  older  girls,  coming  under  the  compulsory-attendance 
school  law,  were  also  compelled  to  remain  at  home  to  care 
for  the  small  children.  Now  they  bring  them  to  the  day 
nursery  in  the  morning,  and  take  them  away  in  the  after- 
noon. Although  it  was  this  practical  problem,  arising  from 
economic  conditions,  that  led  to  the  establishment  of  day 
nurseries,  the  social  and  educational  results  of  the  work 
have  become  far  more  significant.  The  force  of  this  can 
be  appreciated  only  after  visiting  the  places  where  these 
children  live  or  stay  when  not  in  school.  Even  the  kinder- 
garten age  is  too  late  to  save  many  of  them  from  the  condi- 
tions under  which  they  must  exist  as  babies  and  little 
children. 

2.  A  penny  lunch  has  been  established  by  the  same  or- 
ganization that  is  instrumental  in  supplying  food  for  the 
day  nursery.  The  Board  of  Education  furnishes  the  build- 
ing and  equipment  and  pays  the  cook ;  the  woman's  organi- 
zation supplies  the  food.  A  penny  secures  for  the  child  a 
large  bowl  of  good  rich  soup,  with  a  half-loaf  of  French 
bread.  A  second  serving  is  allowed,  and  usually  requested. 
The  penny  charge  is  made  to  avoid  the  charity  feature. 
Children  paying  the  penny  feel  that  they  are  not  paupers. 
When  they  do  not  have  the  penny,  however,  they  are  served 
at  the  request  of  the  principal.  The  average  number  taking 
advantage  of  the  penny  lunch  will  approximate  350.  The 
school  enrolls  about  600.  For  many  of  the  children  this  is 
the  most,  if  not  the  only,  substantial  meal  they  will  get  dur- 
ing the  day.  The  experiment,  which  has  been  in  operation 


276  The  Portland  Survey 

for  five  years,  proves  the  economy  of  feeding,  at  public  ex- 
pense, school  children  who  are  underfed  at  home.  The 
school  efficiency  of  such  children  is  sufficiently  increased  to 
save  the  cost  of  the  whole  experiment  in  the  decreased 
number  of  years  it  requires  to  get  them  through  the  school, 
disregarding  wholly  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  their 
school  work  and  the  effects  upon  their  future  lives.1 

3.  There  is  a  home-economics  building,  designed  to  meet 
the  needs  of  the  community,  with  a  large  sewing  room,  well 
supplied  with  machines,  which  are  used  by  the  pupils  of  the 
school  and  the  women  of  the  neighborhood.    Girls  who  have 
left  school  and  mothers  and  wives  of  the  community  may 
be  seen  any  day  in  the  school  year  making  garments  for 
themselves   and   the   home   and   receiving   what   help   the 
teacher  can  give  them.     The  articles  made  by  the  school 
girls,  in  cost  of  materials  and  kind  of  garment,  are  adapted 
to  the  home  from  which  the  girl  comes.    Three  teachers  of 
the  school  make  yearly  visits  to  all  the  homes,  and  learn 
the  needs  of  the  people.    Work  in  cooking  follows  the  same 
plan.     Preparation  of  Italian  and  Spanish  dishes  is  taught, 
food  is  studied,  and  economy  in  materials  practiced.     In 
both  cooking  and  sewing,  girls  are  allowed  to  begin  the 
work  earlier  and  give  more  time  to  it  than   in  regular 
schools.     The  first  consideration  in  the  work  is  to  make  it 
serve  the  neighborhood. 

4.  A  room  has  been  equipped  with  different  kinds  and 
sizes  of  looms,  and  rugs  in  abundance  are  made  and  taken 
into  the  homes.     Sometimes  these  rugs  constitute  the  only 
respectable  bit  of  home  furnishing,  and  their  effect  upon 
present  and  future  citizenship  cannot  be  measured.    Mothers 
are  allowed  the  use  of  the  looms  freely,  and  many  take  ad- 
vantage of  the  opportunity. 

5.  A  laundry  room  is  equipped  for  effective  work,  and 
is  used  by  schoolgirls  and  neighborhood  women  to  do  home 
laundering. 

1  See  also  Chapter  XTV,  pages  359  to  360. 


Needed  Reorganizations  and  Expansions         277 

6.  Two  sloyd  or  woodshop  rooms  are  in  use  continu- 
ously.   The  making  of  home  furniture  constitutes  most  of 
the  work.    In  connection  with  these  there  is  a  shoe-mending 
equipment  by  which  hundreds  of  pairs  of  shoes  are  repaired 
during  the  year. 

7.  The  older  girls  are  taught  how  to  care  for  children, 
and  use  the  day  nursery  as  a  laboratory. 

8.  Home  work  begins  with  the  primary  grades,  and  in 
primary  manual  arts  the  idea  of  home  is  developed  through 
the  use  of  store  boxes  and  cardboard  made  into  houses,  with 
windows  for  light,  curtains  for  ornament,  tables,  chairs, 
beds,  and  tubs  for  use.    In  this  school  the  little  folks  know 
more  about  right  sanitation  and  proper  living,  although  they 
experience  less  of  either,  than  do  those  of  wealthy  com- 
munities.    If  the  large  cities  of  this  country  are  ever  to 
rid  themselves  permanently  of  slums  and  slum  districts,  it 
must  be  done  through  proper  teaching  in  the  public  schools. 

9.  School  and  home  garden  work  is  highly  developed. 

10.  A  considerable  percentage  of  Mexican  people  are 
careless  of  their  time.    The  older  boys  of  the  neighborhood, 
who  have  left  school,  are  encouraged  to  spend  their  leisure 
time  on  the  school  grounds,  where  they  may  play  at  any 
time  during  the  day.     Some  of  these  become  interested  in 
manual  work,  art,  or  music,  and  are  led  back  into  school 
work. 

Two  questions  naturally  arise  concerning  a  school  of  this 
kind :  ( i )  What  becomes  of  the  regular  school  work  —  the 
"  Three  R's  "?  (2)  How  is  the  cost  affected?  The  answer 
to  the  first  is  that  a  marked  improvement  is  noticeable  in  the 
academic  work  of  this  school  since  its  reorganization.  The 
second  point,  which  unfortunately  is  ofttimes  the  determin- 
ing one,  will  for  the  present  discourage  this  departure  in 
school  organization.  The  cost  per  pupil  will  increase  from 
20  to  33^  per  cent.  This  can  be  more  than  justified, 
though,  by  the  increased  efficiency,  which  should  easily 


278  The  Portland  Survey 

reach  50  per  cent.    In  the  school  described  it  has  been  100 
per  cent. 

8.     A   SCHOOL   FOR   JANITORS 

There  is  one  other  type  of  special  school  which  I  should 
like  to  recommend  to  the  consideration  of  the  Board  of 
School  Directors,  and  that  is  a  school  for  janitors.  From 
appearances,  the  janitor  service  in  Portland  is  excellent,  the 
buildings  being  scrupulously  clean.  Since  janitors,  how- 
ever, so  nearly  approach  teachers  in  importance  in  school 
work,  every  large  city-school  system  should  provide  a  school 
for  janitors.  Term  of  service,  attendance  at  the  schools 
for  janitors,  and  personal  efficiency  in  the  work  should  be 
recognized  in  a  graded  scale  of  wages  paid.  To  pay  all 
the  same  rate,  regardless  of  intelligence  displayed  or  service 
rendered,  is  a  mistake.1 

SUMMARY   OF   RECOMMENDATIONS 

To  summarize  this  discussion  of  the  types  of  additional 
schools  needed,  the  following  recommendations  are  made : 

1.  The  school  system  should  be  reorganized,  to  secure 
greater  educational  efficiency,  into  the  following  units : 

(a)  Kindergarten,  one  year 

(b)  Elementary  schools,  six  years 

(c)  Intermediate  schools,  three  years 

(d)  High  schools,  five  years  (three  or  four  years  now ; 
five  ultimately) 

This  can  be  made  a  truly  American  system,  fitted  to  meet 
the  social,  professional,  industrial,  and  commercial  needs  of 
American  boys  and  girls. 

2.  Ungraded   rooms   should  be   established   in   connec- 
tion with  each  elementary  school  of  any  size,  to  afford 
the  necessary  provision  for  the  exceptional  children  in  the 
school. 

1  See  also  Chapter  XIII,  pages  335,  336,  where  a  similar  recommendation  is 
made. 


Needed  Reorganizations  and  Expansions         279 

3.  Four  or  five  special  or  truant  schools  for  boys  irregular 
in  their  studies,  habits,  and  deportment  should  be  estab- 
lished, graduating  their  boys  into  a  central  special  manual 
school,  from  which  they  should  be  admitted  to  one  of  the 
high  schools. 

4.  The  vacation  school  system  should  be  gradually  en- 
larged and  extended,  and  changed  somewhat  in  type.     The 
playgrounds  should  be  closely  connected  with  such  school 
work. 

5.  The  night  school  work  should  be  enlarged,  enriched, 
and  materially  extended  in  scope,  and  its  purpose  in  part 
changed. 

6.  The  school  day  should  be  extended,  and  Saturday 
forenoon  included  for  vocational  work  in  grammar  schools 
that  have  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  and  in  the  inter- 
mediate schools  and  the  high  schools. 

7.  Two  special  art  schools,  one  for  intermediate  and  one 
for  high  school  pupils,  should  be  established. 

8.  There  should  be  established  at  least  two  neighborhood 
schools,  and  gradually  a  number  more,  to  meet  the  peculiar 
needs  of  certain  centers  within  the  city. 

9.  A  school  for  the  instruction  of  janitors  should  be 
added,   standards   for  the  work  established,   and  a  wage 
scale  based  on  efficiency  instituted. 


PART   III 

Buildings  and  Health 


CHAPTER    XII1 

THE    BUILDING   AND    SITES    PROBLEM 
PORTLAND'S  BUILDING  PROBLEM 

TWO  main  problems  confront  the  Board  of  School  Di- 
rectors of  the  Portland  school  district  in  the  matter  of 
school  buildings,  viz. :  ( i )  How  can  they  secure  the  con- 
struction of  the  best,  safest,  and  most  economical  school 
building?  (2)  How  can  they  make  the  buildings  already 
constructed  meet  most  helpfully  the  educational  and  hy- 
gienic demands  of  school  life  ?  In  this  chapter  the  first  of 
these  questions  is  considered,  and  in  the  following  chapter 
Dr.  Dresslar  has  answered  the  second. 

The  Portland  school  district  is  today  feeling  the  effects 
of  a  period  of  very  rapid  expansion.  Such  a  period  is  always 
a  trying  one  for  a  school  district  or  for  a  municipality.  New 
needs  appear  and  provision  is  made  to  meet  them ;  but,  be- 
fore the  necessary  buildings  can  be  erected,  still  greater  in- 
creases in  the  population  have  made  still  more  classrooms 
necessary.  Each  new  school  building  seems  only  to  create 
a  demand  for  more. 

RAPID   INCREASE   IN   SCHOOL   POPULATION 

The  rate  at  which  the  school  population  of  Portland  has 
increased  is  well  shown  in  the  diagram  given  in  Figure  8, 
in  which  the  increases  in  school  population  (census,  four  to 
twenty  years  of  age)  and  in  the  enrollment  in  the  schools 
for  the  past  twenty-three  years  are  compared. 

1  Chapter  XII  was  written  by  the  Director  of  the  Survey.  —  EDITOR. 

283 


284  The  Portland  Survey 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  increase  in  school  population  was 
slow  and  gradual  until  1891.  Then  there  comes  suddenly  a 
rapid  increase,  for  a  few  years  only,  after  which  the  curve 
drops  back  to  its  former  slower  rate  of  increase.  In  1901 
a  new  increase  in  school  census  began,  and  this  has  con- 
tinued. Since  1905  the  increase  has  been  rapid  for  both 
the  school  census  and  the  school  enrollment.  This  is  shown 
by  the  rapid  mounting  upward  of  the  curve.  So  great 
has  been  the  recent  increase  in  population  that,  in  the  seven 
years  from  1905  to  1912,  both  the  school  census  and  the 
school  enrollment  have  increased  about  15,000  children, 
and,  from  1905  to  1913,  the  schools  increased  more  in 
enrollment  than  they  had  in  all  the  years  from  the  time 
the  first  school  was  opened  in  1847  UP  to  I9°5- 

The  present  rate  of  increase  in  the  enrollment  of  children 
in  the  schools,  based  on  the  recent  figures,  is  six  children  a 
day  for  every  day  in  the  year;  a  new  classroom  every  six 
and  two  thirds  days,  and  a  new  school  building,  as  large 
as  the  new  Josiah  Failing  School,  every  four  months.  At 
least  three  such  buildings,  or  their  equivalent  in  scattered 
units,  ought  to  be  constructed  each  year,  to  meet  merely  the 
present  needs.  These  needs  will  naturally  increase  with  the 
growth  of  the  city,  and  soon  four  and  five  such  new  build- 
ings will  be  required  each  year. 

Such  a  rapid  growth  as  this  means  a  great  strain  upon 
the  school  department  finances,  and  the  Board  of  School 
Directors  has  shown  much  foresight  and  has  served  the 
city  well  in  keeping  the  school  facilities  abreast  with  this 
remarkable  increase  in  the  school  population.  So  well  has 
the  board  done  this  work  that  there  are  today  no  half-time 
classes  in  Portland,  all  children  who  need  school  accommo- 
dations are  provided  for,  and  the  private  and  parochial 
school  enrollment  of  the  city  is  relatively  small.  This  is,  in- 
deed, a  commendable  record  of  accomplishment.  The 
Board  of  School  Directors  is  also  to  be  commended  for  the 
foresight  shown  in  purchasing  sites;  in  planning  buildings 
large  enough  for  future  needs;  in  erecting  them  in  units, 


The  Building  and  Sites  Problem 


285 


£161 


0881 


286  The  Portland  Survey 

as  needed,  and  in  evolving  recently  a  building  department 
and  a  standard  type  of  building  construction. 

The  costs  for  school  buildings  vary  so  much  from  city  to 
city,  with  varying  labor  conditions  and  material  costs,  that 
one  not  familiar  with  the  city  cannot  say  whether  the  build- 
ing costs  are  high  or  low,  so  the  Survey  did  not  consider 
this  question.  The  architectural  and  supervision  work,  done 
under  the  recently  created  Superintendent  of  Properties, 
seemed,  however,  to  be  well  and  economically  handled,  and 
calculated  to  produce  good  buildings  at  low  costs. 

RECENT   INCREASE   IN    BUILDING   OUTLAYS 

Such  a  rapid  expansion  of  the  school  system  has  meant 
large  outlays  for  sites  and  for  new  buildings,  as  is  shown  in 
Figure  9. 

From  a  somewhat  normal  expenditure  of  one  fourth  of 
the  school  money  for  sites  and  new  buildings  in  1901-02, 
the  board  has  been  compelled  to  increase  such  expenditures 
up  to  over  one  half  of  the  yearly  expenses.  The  annual 
costs  for  maintaining  the  school  plant  created  (insurance, 
janitors,  fuel,  light  and  power,  water,  telephone,  and  re- 
pairs) have  naturally  also  steadily  increased,  as  is  shown. 
The  result  has  been  that,  by  1912,  only  40  per  cent,  of  the 
money  expended  for  schools  was  spent  for  the  real  work 
of  the  schools  —  instruction  and  the  administration  of  in- 
struction. The  year  1913  shows  a  decrease  in  expenditures 
for  sites  and  buildings,  but  it  is  probable  that  this  drop  is 
temporary  only  and  that  following  years  will  again  witness 
large  expenditures. 

There  is  no  reason  to  think  that  the  growth  of  Portland 
and  the  increase  in  school  population  will,  in  the  next  half- 
century  at  least,  suffer  anything  more  than  temporary 
checks.  On  the  contrary,  with  the  opening  of  the  Panama 
Canal,  the  coming  of  immigrant  families  with  larger  num- 
bers of  children,  the  gradual  decrease  in  the  percentage  of 
unmarried  men  in  the  city,  and  the  general  settlement  of 


The  Building  and  Sites  Problem 


287 


21-1161 


288  The  Portland  Survey 

the  Northwest,  there  is  every  reason  to  expect  that  the  pres- 
ent increase  in  both  school  population  and  school  enroll- 
ment will  not  only  continue,  but  will  also  increase  in  rate. 
There  is  also  reason  to  believe  that  both  the  city  and  the 
school  district  will  be  materially  increased  in  size  by  the 
annexation  of  outlying  territory,  which  in  turn  will  require 
additional  expenditures  for  school  facilities.  If  Portland 
were  not  a  rapidly  growing  city,  with  a  large  future  ahead 
of  it,  the  school-building  problem  would  be  much  easier  than 
it  now  is.  It  is  relatively  easy  to  provide  for  the  needs  of 
a  stationary  community. 

The  building  problem  is  still  further  complicated  by  a  re- 
cent city  ordinance  requiring  fireproof  construction  for  all 
school  buildings.  This  has  added  55  per  cent,  to  the 
cost  of  construction.  With  the  increased  cost  of  labor  and 
materials,  it  is  probable  that  each  classroom  provided  today 
costs  60  per  cent,  more  to  construct  than  it  did  six  or 
seven  years  ago.  An  important  problem  facing  the  Board 
of  School  Directors  today  is  how  to  continue  to  keep  up 
with  the  increasing  educational  needs  of  the  school  district, 
and  not  make  the  taxes  too  high,  or  cut  the  percentage  of 
money  devoted  to  instruction  and  administration  too  low, 
or  both. 

SHIFTING   OF    POPULATION 

Besides  the  rapid  increase  in  school  population,  Portland 
is  also  confronted  by  a  marked  shifting  of  population.  This 
adds  somewhat  to  the  difficulty  of  the  problem.  On  the 
West  Side,  North  Portland  is  rapidly  changing,  in  its  lower 
and  level  portions,  from  a  residential  to  an  industrial,  com- 
mercial, and  shipping  center.  It  is  probable  that  the  center 
of  the  manufacturing  district  of  the  city  will  in  time  be 
located  here,  near  the  river,  and  below  the  bridges.  One 
school  (Atkinson)  was  abandoned  in  1911,  as  a  result  of 
a  change  which  had  taken  place  within  five  or  six  years. 
The  Chapman  and  the  Couch  schools  also  show  the  effect 
of  these  changes.  That  portion  of  North  Portland  now 


The  Building  and  Sites  Problem  289 

consisting  of  good  residences  and  apartment  houses  is  likely 
to  become,  within  a  relatively  short  time,  a  dwelling  place 
for  laboring  people  of  the  poorer  class,  while  the  hills  are 
likely  to  be  settled  by  a  residence  class  of  means.  Just  what 
will  be  the  future  school  needs  here  is  somewhat  uncertain. 

In  the  central  portion  of  the  West  Side,  the  present  com- 
mercial center,  business  will  rapidly  expand  to  the  south  and 
westward.  Residences  are  now  being  crowded  out  by 
hotels,  retail  stores,  office  buildings,  and  large  apartment 
houses.  This  will  continue  westward  to  the  hills,  and  south- 
ward as  needs  increase.  School  needs  here  will  materially 
decrease.  The  Lownsdale  School  is  now  practically  unused ; 
the  Ladd  and  Shattuck  schools  will  decrease  in  size,  and  the 
Lincoln  High  School  will  probably  be  surrounded,  before 
long,  by  business  houses. 

South  of  this  region  is  an  area,  lying  between  the  low 
ground  along  the  river  and  the  hills  behind  and  known  as 
South  Portland,  which  bids  fair  to  remain,  for  a  long  time 
to  come,  the  residing  place  of  the  recently  arrived  immi- 
grant. Here  slums  will  develop,  and  here  educational  needs 
will  be  large. 

The  hills  behind,  with  their  magnificent  outlook,  will  in 
time  be  covered  with  residences  of  a  good  type  and  will  be 
the  residing  place  of  professional  and  business  men  of 
means.  Still  further  to  the  southward,  out  to  the  angle 
formed  by  the  Clackamas  and  the  Washington  County  lines, 
is  an  area  which  will  probably  be  annexed  before  long,  and 
which  will  probably  develop  into  a  middle-class  suburban 
residence  region.  Educational  needs  here  will  rapidly  in- 
crease after  annexation. 

The  East  Side  of  the  city  is  destined  to  be  its  great  resi- 
dence district,  and  this  will  be  expanded  by  further  annexa- 
tions. To  this  side  there  is  now  a  constant  migration  of 
people  from  the  other  side  of  the  river.  Many  of  these  are 
people  of  small  means,  who  are  buying  homes  on  the  install- 
ment plan  in  this  newer  part  of  the  city.  There  is  also  a 
marked  movement  of  people  away  from  the  river  districts 


290  The  Portland  Survey 

of  the  central  East  Side,  the  people  moving  further  to  the 
north,  east,  or  south.  It  seems  probable  now  that  a  large 
section  of  the  lower  lands  along  the  Willamette  River,  to 
the  north  of  the  bridges  on  the  East  Side,  will  develop  into 
manufacturing  and  shipping  areas,  and  that  another  large 
section  along  the  central  East  Side  will  develop  into  a  sec- 
ondary business  district  for  warehouses,  certain  types  of 
large  business,  and  small  stores.  The  Shaver,  Eliot,  Holli- 
day,  Buckman,  Hawthorne,  and  Stephens  districts  are  al- 
most certain  to  decrease  rapidly  in  school  children,  and  some 
of  these  schools  will  probably  have  to  be  abandoned  before 
they  are  worn  out.  As  the  people  move  from  the  old  school 
districts,  new  classrooms  must  be  provided  elsewhere  to 
receive  the  children.  In  time,  also,  and  probably  sooner 
than  Portland  people  now  expect,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
Washington  High  School  is  not  at  all  well  located. 

Still  further  to  the  eastward  a  large  residence  population 
will  in  time  be  found.  Mount  Tabor  Park  probably  will  be 
very  near  the  center  of  the  future  residence  district  of  the 
East  Side.  Another  residence  region  on  the  East  Side  will  be 
to  the  north,  with  the  Ockley  Green  School  probably  not  far 
from  its  center,  and  still  others  to  the  south  and  the  south- 
east, with  the  Eastmoreland  and  the  Lents  schools  not  far 
from  their  centers.  Into  each  of  these  districts  there  is 
today  a  constant  migration  of  people  from  the  West  Side 
and  from  the  central  East  Side,  near  the  river. 


PROBABLE    FUTURE    NEEDS 

While  this  shifting  of  the  population  complicates  the 
building  problem  somewhat,  it  also  makes  certain  needs 
seem  clear.  The  great  residence  region  is  almost  certain 
to  be  on  the  East  Side,  and  the  great  majority  of  employed 
persons  will  make  their  homes  there.  In  the  four  East  Side 
residence  districts,  just  described,  there  will  be  the  greatest 
need  for  schools.  Another  residence  section,  probably  of 
large  future  needs,  lies  on  the  West  Side,  and  to  the  south 


The  Building  and  Sites  Problem  291 

and  west.  In  each  of  these  five  districts  large  school  sites 
should  be  secured,  the  best  of  school  buildings  erected,  and 
good  playgrounds,  athletic  fields,  parks,  and  recreation 
centers  provided.  On  the  West  Side,  too,  there  will  be  an 
increasing  need  for  schools  on  or  near  the  hills,  and  a  de- 
creasing need  for  them  in  the  level  portions  from  the  Shat- 
tuck  School  north  to  the  region  of  the  Davis  School.  The 
Davis,  Failing,  and  Holman  schools  seem  well  located  for 
the  apparent  needs  of  the  near  future.  The  Davis  and  the 
Holman  schools  should  be  provided  with  much  larger  sites, 
as  all  three  of  these  schools  doubtless  have  an  important 
future  work  to  do. 

SIZE   OF   SCHOOL   LOTS 

The  school  lots  for  nearly  all  the  school  buildings  in  the 
city  are  too  small.  This  may  be  seen  from  the  following 
table  : 

TABLE  XXI 

SIZE  OF  SCHOOL  SITES  IN  PORTLAND 

School  sites  of  less  than  i  acre 18 

School  sites  from  i  to  ij^  acres 10 

School  sites  from  ij^  to  2  acres      15 

School  sites  from  2  to  3  acres      13 

School  sites  from  3  to  4  acres      3 

School  sites  from  4  to  5  acres i 

School  sites  of  over  5  acres      2 

School  sites  of  less  than  i  acre      30  per  cent. 

School  sites  of  less  than  2  acres 70  per  cent. 


This  deficiency  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  regulation 
block  of  Portland  is  much  smaller  than  that  in  most  cities, 
and,  instead  of  insisting  on  two  or  four  blocks  and  con- 
demning the  inclosed  streets,  the  Board  of  School  Directors 
has  in  the  past  been  compelled,  either  from  lack  of  money 
or  lack  of  the  support  of  public  opinion,  or  both,  to  depend 


292  The  Portland  Survey 

often  on  a  single  block,  sometimes  less,  for  school  lots. 
There  are  some  commendable  variations  from  this,  notably 
those  of  the  Creston,  the  new  Hoffman  site,  the  Jefferson 
High  School,  the  Hawthorne,  and  a  few  others. 

Recently  the  board  has  shown  commendable  wisdom  in 
buying  larger  school  sites.  Forty  thousand  square  feet  of 
land  (the  typical  200  X  200  Portland  block)  is  altogether 
too  meager  for  any  ordinary  city  school  lot.  Even  if  a 
lot  of  this  size  has  the  proper  exposure  and  is  safely  situ- 
ated with  reference  to  noisy  and  dusty  car  lines,  or  smoking 
and  buzzing  mills,  very  little  available  playground  is  left 
when  even  a  moderate-sized  building  is  properly  placed  on 
it.  When  a  building  of  eighteen  classrooms  and  an  as- 
sembly room  is  placed  on  a  lot  of  this  size,  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  set  the  building  so  close  to  the  street  that  it  will 
cover  practically  one  half  of  the  ground.  What  ground  is 
left  is  usually  so  divided  and  cut  up  by  the  building  that  its 
usefulness  for  playground  purposes  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

According  to  the  rules  of  the  London  School  Board,  one 
hundred  feet  of  play  space  is  required  for  each  pupil.  Many 
of  the  schools  of  Portland  cannot  approximate  to  this  stand- 
ard. If  we  deduct  one  half  for  building,  the  number  of 
square  feet  of  free  space  left,  per  pupil,  for  certain  build- 
ings, is  approximately: 

Eliot  School 27  square  feet 

Shattuck  School 28 

Albina  Homestead  School 30 

Couch  School 30 

Hawthorne  School 36 

Washington  High  School     36 

Sunnyside  School 40 

Chapman  School 40 

Buckman  School 41 

Stephens  School 41 

Woodstock  School 51 

Even  this  space  has,  not  infrequently,  been  further  de- 
creased by  "  landscape  gardening,"  so  that  the  streets  are 
about  all  that  is  left  for  playgrounds.  All  of  the  above 


The  Building  and  Sites  Problem  293 

schools,  if  they  are  to  be  continued  in  use,  are  in  need  of 
larger  playgrounds. 


THE  NEED  FOR  LARGER  PLAYGROUNDS 

One  of  the  most  serious  menaces  to  the  morals  and  gen- 
eral welfare  of  city  boys  is  the  lack  of  ample  playgrounds. 
It  has  been  shown  again  and  again  that  lack  of  playgrounds 
and  juvenile  delinquency,  in  the  great  cities  of  the  East,  are 
closely  related.  Portland  is  now  in  a  critical  stage  of  its 
development.  There  are  still  large  and  well-situated  tracts 
of  unimproved  land  within  the  city  limits,  and,  while  in 
some  instances  exorbitant  values  are  assigned,  for  the  most 
part  large  school  lots  are  available  at  fairly  reasonable 
prices.  The  Board  of  School  Directors  should  acquire 
larger  school  grounds,  and  should  undertake  to  give  to  the 
children  ample  opportunity  for  satisfying  one  of  their  most 
fundamental  instincts.  No  boy  who  is  denied  opportunity 
for  vigorous  play  with  his  fellows  can  reach  his  highest 
possible  development,  either  physically,  morally,  socially, 
or  democratically.  The  large,  new  playground  at  the  Cres- 
ton  School  will  do  more  to  keep  the  boys  and  girls  in  school, 
and  inspirit  them  while  there,  than  all  the  sermonizing  the 
whole  teaching  force  might  employ  to  impress  upon  them 
the  significance  of  a  thorough  education.  More  room  for 
the  children  is  one  of  the  best  possible  investments  which  a 
city  can  make.  Unless  this  land  is  acquired  soon,  increasing 
values  and  fewer  opportunities  will  greatly  reduce  the  prob- 
ability that  this  rapidly  growing  commercial  city  will  ever 
take  proper  care  of  its  children.  The  school  buildings  and 
playgrounds  are  the  logical  places  for  recreation  centers, 
and  the  educational  department  of  a  city  can  administer  and 
supervise  this  part  of  a  city's  duties  better  and  to  more 
purpose  than  any  other  department,  for  in  its  essence  the 
work  of  a  recreation  center  is  primarily  an  educational 
undertaking. 

The  importance  of  planning  for  the  future  at  this  stage 


294  The  Portland  Survey 

can  hardly  be  overestimated.  If  the  Board  of  School  Di- 
rectors had  some  comprehensive  fixed  plan  furnished  them, 
with  reference  to  parks,  boulevards,  car  lines,  and  other  pub- 
lic necessities,  it  would  help  them  greatly  in  the  task  of  se- 
lecting suitable  sites  for  school  buildings,  in  preventing 
encroachments  from  disturbing  noises  and  more  serious  dan- 
gers, and  in  preventing  the  wasting  of  funds  on  permanent 
buildings  to  supply  what  will  prove  to  be  only  temporary 
needs.  Portland  needs  rational  and  practical  plans  for  im- 
mediate and  future  guidance. 

THE   HIGH   SCHOOLS 

The  high  schools  of  the  district  will  in  time  be  called  upon 
to  render  a  much  larger  service  than  they  at  present  render, 
and  this  ought  to  be  kept  in  view  in  securing  land  and  in 
planning  for  the  future.  The  Jefferson  High  School  is 
probably  well  located,  and  is  supplied  with  about  the  proper 
amount  of  land.  The  Washington  High  School  will,  before 
long,  be  found  to  be  poorly  located;  the  site  is  too  small, 
and  the  building  is  also  poorly  adapted  to  modern  high 
school  needs.  Eventually  this  can  be  sold,  and  a  new  site, 
out  near  Mt.  Tabor,  secured  for  a  new  high  school.  A  third 
high  school  on  the  East  Side  will  be  needed  before  long,  in 
the  southern  division  of  that  part  of  the  city.  A  site  for  an 
agricultural  school,  somewhere  out  on  the  East  Side,  should 
also  be  secured  before  land  becomes  too  valuable. 

In  providing  for  such  schools  for  the  future,  plenty  of 
land  should  be  secured.  A  site  of  eight  to  ten  acres  is  not 
too  large  for  the  needs  of  the  ordinary  cosmopolitan  high 
school  of  the  near  future,  while  for  an  agricultural  high 
school  a  site  of  at  least  fifty  acres  should  be  secured. 

On  the  West  Side,  the  new  Lincoln  High  School  site  is 
too  small,  and  the  one  and  a  half  blocks  ought  to  be  in- 
creased to  four  at  once,  before  the  land  becomes  too  valu- 
able. The  present  building  is  none  too  large  for  present 
needs  and  will  soon  be  much  too  small.  Surrounded  as  this 


The  Building  and  Sites  Problem  295 

school  soon  will  be  by  business,  care  ought  to  be  exercised 
now  to  secure  sufficient  land  and  to  develop  such  an  insti- 
tution as  might  be  located  best  in  the  business  part  of  a  city. 

Here  should  be  developed  a  group  of  high  school  build- 
ings ministering  particularly  to  city  needs.  On  one  block 
should  be  erected  a  large  building,  somewhat  similar  to  the 
present  one,  for  a  technical  or  polytechnic  school,  and  the 
present  trade  school  should  be  consolidated  with  it.  On  an- 
other block  should  be  erected  another  similar  building  to 
house  the  present  commercial  work,  in  which  a  large  and 
well-equipped  commercial  high  school  of  the  best  type  can 
be  developed.  On  the  fourth  block  could  be  erected  excel- 
lent gymnasium  facilities  for  the  students  of  all  these 
schools,  or  the  block  could  be  held  in  reserve  for  future  high 
school  needs.  On  the  annexation  of  new  territory,  addi- 
tional high  schools  probably  will  need  to  be  developed  in 
the  districts  annexed. 

With  these  conditions  before  the  Board  of  School  Di- 
rectors, their  problem  is  how  to  keep  up  with  the  increasing 
material  needs  of  the  school  district  and  provide  it  with  the 
best,  safest,  and  most  economical  school  plant,  while  avoid- 
ing the  danger  of  cramping  the  development  of  the  instruc- 
tion for  which  the  buildings  have  been  erected. 

THE   BEST   BUILDINGS 

The  type  of  school  building  best  suited  to  school  work  is 
still  in  process  of  constant  change.  The  best  buildings  of 
a  decade  ago  are  being  replaced  by  much  better  buildings 
today,  and  we  have  no  assurance  that  the  same  will  not  be 
true  of  a  decade  to  come.  In  fact,  everything  seems  to  in- 
dicate that  we  are  now  in  a  period  of  rapid  change  and 
development.  The  old  Portland  High  School  building 
(Lownsdale)  was  doubtless  regarded  as  an  excellent  school 
building  when  constructed,  in  1883,  but  thirty  years  later 
we  regard  it  as  practically  unfit  for  school  use.  The  Couch, 
the  Shattuck,  and  the  old  Failing  schools  are  other  examples 


296  The  Portland  Survey 

of  buildings,  good  in  their  day,  but  now  obsolete  and 
scarcely  fit  for  instruction.  Some  of  the  more  recent  build- 
ings, also,  while  still  reasonably  sound  and  secure,  represent 
today  a  very  poor  type  of  schoolhouse  construction.  The 
new  Failing  School  and  the  Lincoln  High  School  represent 
the  best  buildings  Portland  has  so  far  produced,  and,  after 
allowing  for  certain  defects  and  omissions,  these  must  be 
regarded  as  excellent  buildings,  which  ought  to  prove  useful 
for  a  half-century  at  least.  There  is  no  assurance,  however, 
that  ten  years  from  now  schoolhouse  construction  may  not 
be  so  improved  upon  that  these  will  then  be  regarded  as  of 
a  somewhat  inferior  type. 

No  one  knows,  for  example,  but  that  open-air  schools 
may  supplant  all  other  types  of  elementary  school  build- 
ings. Unit  buildings,  all  one  story  high,  with  connect- 
ing arcades  and  a  detached  heating  plant,  have  also  been 
introduced  in  some  cities.  In  still  other  cities,  one-story 
structures  are  now  being  built.  Until  very  recently,  too, 
intermediate  schools  (as  described  in  Chapters  IX  and 
XI)  were  not  thought  of.  Today  the  large  educational 
value  of  such  schools  has  been  so  clearly  demonstrated 
that  it  is  only  a  question  of  a  few  years  until  all  progres- 
sive cities  will  include  them  as  a  part  of  their  school  sys- 
tems and  will  erect  buildings  specially  designed  for  such 
instruction.  Until  very  recently  one  large  high  school 
building,  such  as  the  Jefferson  High  School,  was  built  to 
include  in  it  all  the  instruction  given.  Today  our  best  high 
schools  are  securing  large  acreage  and  building  a  series  of 
unit  buildings,  each  adapted  to  certain  purposes,  and  all 
grouped  according  to  some  good  architectural  plan.  The 
first  cost  for  such  buildings  is  not  very  much  larger;  the 
cost  for  upkeep  is  lower ;  the  fire  risk  is  less ;  and  the  edu- 
cational and  administrative  aspects  are  much  improved. 

So  far  as  our  present  knowledge  goes,  however,  the  new 
Failing  School,  with  certain  modifications  along  the  lines 
suggested  by  Superintendent  Francis  (Chapters  X  and  XI) 
and  Dr.  Dresslar  (Chapter  XIII),  to  adapt  it  better  for 


The  Building  and  Sites  Problem  297 

special  instruction,  is  the  best  type  of  elementary  school 
building  for  Portland's  use  which  the  city  has  so  far  evolved. 
The  Lincoln  High  School  is  also  the  best  high  school  build- 
ing so  far  constructed.  Much  credit  is  due  the  Board  of 
School  Directors  for  having  evolved  and  erected  such  satis- 
factory and  substantial  types  of  buildings.  Until  some- 
thing better  is  evolved,  it  would  be  well  to  follow  these  types 
in  future  construction. 


OTHER   TYPES   OF   ROOMS   IN    SCHOOL   BUILDINGS 

In  building  new  buildings  after  these  types,  though,  care 
ought  to  be  taken  not  to  follow  too  closely  the  type  of  in- 
terior represented  in  the  Failing  School,  good  as  it  is.  More 
rooms  for  special  purposes,  such  as  science  room,  music 
room,  and  domestic  science  room,  ought  to  be  provided. 
An  assembly  hall  that  is  larger  and  better  adapted  to  use  for 
school  assemblies  and  for  neighborhood  meetings  ought 
to  be  built,  and  it  would  be  well  if  this  were  on  the  ground 
floor  and  so  arranged  that  it  would  be  possible  to  use  it  in 
the  evenings  or  at  other  times  without  entering  other  parts 
of  the  building.  A  room  for  a  branch  public  library  might 
also  be  included  in  such  a  school,  with  advantage.  Baths, 
in  the  basement,  ought  also  to  be  added. 


THE  SAFEST  BUILDINGS 

Such  buildings  are  also  somewhat  safer  than  a  wooden, 
or  a  wood  and  brick  construction,  though  not  enough  so 
for  this  feature  to  be  of  any  special  importance.  The  fire 
drills  in  use  in  the  Portland  schools  are  the  best  I  have  ever 
seen.  In  less  than  one  minute  from  the  first  signal,  build- 
ings containing  600  to  700  children  are  completely  empty, 
and  the  children  are  lined  up  in  ranks  with  their  teachers 
across  the  street.  Monitors,  too,  have  searched  the  building 
and  reported  to  the  principal  that  all  rooms,  cloakrooms, 
and  halls  are  clear.  The  monitors  and  principals  can  then 


298  The  Portland  Survey 

leave  the  building,  within  the  minute.  The  concentration  of 
the  heating  plant  in  one  central  location ;  the  concrete  walls 
and  floors  in  the  basements;  the  watchfulness  of  janitors; 
fire  plugs  and  hose  within  the  buildings ;  the  large  doors 
swinging  outward  and  provided  with  safety  openers;  the 
excellent  fire  drills;  the  easy  grades  of  stairs,  and  the 
limitation  of  buildings  to  two  stories  —  all  these  factors 
make  the  chance  of  a  child  being  burned  in  a  wooden  build- 
ing in  Portland  about  as  small  as  in  a  fireproof  building. 

Since  the  Collingwood,  Ohio,  disaster,  in  which  a  num- 
ber of  children  were  burned  to  death  in  a  poorly  constructed 
wooden  building,  many  ill-advised  laws  have  been  enacted 
in  various  states,  relative  to  the  construction  of  school- 
houses  and  other  public  buildings.  While  fireproof  con- 
struction for  all  large  and  permanent  school  buildings  is  un- 
doubtedly most  desirable,  there  is,  nevertheless,  such  a  thing 
as  overdoing  the  matter.  In  a  city  such  as  Portland,  where 
the  centers  of  population  are  shifting  so  rapidly,  there  ought 
to  be  some  opportunity,  at  this  stage  of  the  city's  develop- 
ment, to  build  some  small  semi-fireproof  buildings,  espe- 
cially when  these  are  well  removed  from  danger  from  with- 
out. Otherwise,  the  Board  of  School  Directors  may  be 
compelled  to  risk  making  wasteful  expenditure  of  public 
funds.  When  a  basement  is  carefully  fireproofed;  chim- 
neys are  safely  built;  all  electrical  wiring  is  done  under 
rigid  inspection ;  stairways  are  made  of  fireproof  construc- 
tion and  ample  in  number;  and  sufficient  exits  are  planned, 
with  safety  locks  on  all  doors,  the  danger  from  fire  within 
the  building  is  so  very  small  that  the  city  ordinance  now  in 
force  seems  too  rigid. 

THE    MOST   ECONOMICAL   TYPE   OF    BUILDING 

The  first  cost  for  wooden  construction  in  Portland  seems 
to  be  about  one  third  less  than  for  fireproof  construction. 
The  first  cost,  however,  is  not  the  whole  cost.  The  cost  for 
insurance,  upkeep,  and  repairs  is  less  for  a  fireproof  build- 


The  Building  and  Sites  Problem  299 

ing  than  for  a  wooden  one.  The  useful  life  of  a  wooden 
building  is  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  years;  a  fireproof 
building  ought  to  last  a  century,  and  ought  not,  with  pres- 
ent types  of  construction,  to  become  obsolete  for  school  pur- 
poses for  at  least  twice  the  length  of  life  of  the  wooden 
buildings  —  provided  always  that  the  school  population 
does  not  move  away  and  leave  it.  This  is  a  constant  danger 
which  every  growing  city  faces;  if  this  happens,  the  one 
compensation  lies  in  the  increased  value  of  the  land. 

The  new  reinforced  buildings  of  the  Failing  type  are  re- 
ported as  having  cost  about  $7,000  a  classroom,  and  the 
wooden  buildings  recently  erected  as  having  cost  about 
$4,500  a  classroom.  This  is  an  increase  of  55  per  cent,  in 
cost,  for  a  building  which  ought  to  last  at  least  twice  as  long, 
and  costs  less  for  insurance  and  repairs  in  the  meantime. 
Figured  only  on  twice  the  length  of  life,  though,  and  also 
disregarding  insurance  and  upkeep,  the  fireproof  building 
is  seen  to  cost,  at  most,  but  three  fourths  as  much  as  a 
wooden  building,  and  is  thus  a  more  economical  type  of 
building  in  the  long  run,  if  one  is  sure  that  the  centers  of 
school  population  will  remain  somewhat  fixed  for  fifty  years 
to  come. 

This  difference  in  costs  may  be  illustrated  from  present 
Portland  school  buildings.  For  example,  the  cost  of  the 
Jefferson  High  School  building  was  but  60  per  cent,  of  that 
of  the  new  Lincoln  High  School,  a  building  of  somewhat 
similar  capacity;  but  the  Lincoln  High  School  will  outwear 
the  Jefferson  High  School  two  or  three  times,  has  practically 
no  fire  risk,  and  will  cost  but  little  for  repairs,  while  repairs 
to  the  Jefferson  High  School  will  be  both  large  and  costly. 
Based  on  first  costs,  the  Jefferson  High  School  is  a  40  per 
cent,  cheaper  building;  based  on  repairs  and  maintenance 
costs  and  a  life  only  twice  as  long,  the  Lincoln  High  School 
will  probably  prove  to  be  a  50  per  cent,  cheaper  building  than 
the  Jefferson.  Similar  differences  might  be  shown  as  be- 
tween the  new  reinforced  concrete  Failing  building  and  one 
of  the  more  recent  wooden-construction  schools,  such  as 


300  The  Portland  Survey 

the  Lents,  or  the  Glencoe.  The  only  difficulty  about  fire- 
proof construction  is  that  mentioned  above,  namely,  of 
being  certain  where  the  school  children  will  live  fifty  years 
hence.  Even  this  is  not  so  important  as  it  at  first  seems,  as 
there  might  be  an  actual  gain  in  selling  the  site  then. 

The  difference  in  initial  costs  between  wooden  and  fire- 
proof construction  may  be  shown  further  by  the  following 
comparison  of  costs  for  sixty  new  classrooms,  a  year's  needs 
at  present,  and  built  according  to  the  new  and  the  old  plans : 

1.  Fireproof  construction,  60  at  $7,000  each   ....      $420,000 

2.  Wooden  construction,  60  at  $4,500  each     ....       270,000 


Increased  initial  cost  for  former $150,000 

PAYING   FOR   BUILDINGS   BY   TAX   OR   BY   BONDING 

The  large  initial  cost  for  fireproof  buildings,  with  the 
plan  of  paying  for  them  all  in  one  year  by  a  tax,  is  what 
makes  school  building  in  Portland  seem  so  costly.  At  the 
present  time  Portland  needs  about  sixty  new  classrooms  a 
year  for  its  elementary  schools  alone.  Soon  the  number 
may  be  seventy,  eighty,  and  perhaps  even  more.  On  the 
basis  of  the  present  assessment  of  property  in  the  school 
district,  the  increased  initial  cost  for  sixty  classrooms  in 
fireproof  construction  will  raise  the  yearly  tax  rate  for 
schools  in  the  district  only  about  */2  mill  (5  cents  on  the 
$100  of  assessed  property);  and  a  tax  of  il/2  mills  (15 
cents  on  the  $100)  will  pay  for  the  sixty  fireproof  class- 
rooms complete,  with  no  bonds  and  no  future  interest 
charges.  The  rate  will  probably  never  exceed  this,  as  in- 
creases in  values  will  counterbalance  the  increased  number 
of  classrooms  required.  In  other  words,  to  build  and  pay 
for,  at  once,  without  bonds,  a  large,  rein  forced-concrete, 
twenty-two-classroom  building,  such  as  the  new  Failing 
School,  would  cost  a  citizen  only  about  55  cents  for  every 
$1,000  of  property  for  which  he  was  assessed  —  a  trifle 
more  than  the  cost  of  four  good  cigars. 

The  greatly  increased  costs   for  schools   in   Portland, 


The  Building  and  Sites  Problem  301 

within  recent  years,  have  not  come  so  much  from  increased 
costs  for  instruction  or  for  fireproof  school  buildings  as  be- 
cause of  (i)  the  necessity  of  buying  so  many  new  school 
sites  and  of  enlarging  old  ones;  (2)  the  need  of  erecting  so 
many  new  classrooms  to  meet  the  needs  of  a  rapidly  grow- 
ing city ;  and  (3)  the  very  wise  policy  of  the  people  of  Port- 
land in  paying  for  most  of  the  buildings  at  once,  by  a  tax, 
instead  of  shouldering  the  debt  on  the  future  by  the  issu- 
ance of  bonds.  In  the  case  of  Portland,  where  from  two 
thirds  to  three  fourths  of  the  present  school  buildings  will 
need  to  be  replaced  by  new  structures  within  the  next  quar- 
ter of  a  century,  the  wise  results  of  such  a  building  policy, 
if  it  can  be  afforded  by  a  city,  will  be  evident. 

If  we  could  see  anything  to  indicate  that  the  people  of 
our  American  cities  will  in  the  near  future  reach  the  end  of 
the  development  of  their  school  systems,  or  that  a  city  such 
as  Portland  would,  in  thirty  years,  be  largely  through  with 
building  schoolhouses,  it  might  be  wise  to  spread  the  pay- 
ments over  a  period  of  years.  Those  who  have  studied  the 
problem  most,  however,  can  see  no  such  end  to  the  edu- 
cational process.  As  was  pointed  out  in  Chapter  VII,  the 
whole  conception  of  modern  education  is  changing  very 
rapidly,  and  there  is  every  indication  that  education,  in  the 
broadest  sense  of  the  term,  will  in  time  become  the  greatest 
business  of  a  city  or  a  state.  In  a  quarter  or  half  a  century 
public  education  is  almost  certain  to  be  extended  into  fields 
of  constructive  human  welfare  of  which  we  do  not  now 
dream.  Everything  that  tends  to  conserve  child  life  and 
advance  child  welfare,  and  hence  the  welfare  of  the  race, 
as  well  as  most  of  that  relating  to  the  improvement  of 
adults  and  home  life,  will  in  time  be  regarded  as  a  legiti- 
mate function  of  public  education.  Those  cities  will  be  best 
able  to  meet  the  large  educational  needs  of  the  future  in  a 
really  large  way  which  do  not  handicap  themselves  too 
heavily  by  bonded  debt  now.  Of  the  37  cities  studied  in 
Chapter  VI,  but  14,  or  38  per  cent.,  had  any  bonded  debt 
for  schools  in  1910. 


302 


The  Portland  Survey 


The  advantage  of  paying  for  school  buildings  as  built, 
and  escaping  interest  charges  if  this  can  be  done,  may  be 
seen  from  Table  XXII.  This  is  calculated  for  the  present 

TABLE  xxn 
ADDITIONAL  COSTS  FOR  BUILDINGS  UNDER  BONDING 


Cost  When 

Paid 

Bonds  Issued  for 

Time 

Rate 

T3 

'3 

*J 

t!    t/i 

0    o 

On 

Is 

*5  ^ 

1 

4-> 

• 

o 
CJ 

C  —J 
4>    d 

1 

! 

M 

3 

o 

u.a 
pi 

£ 

fl 

H 

CMO 

Albina  District,  No.  31  . 

25  yrs. 

6    % 

$10,000 

$15,000 

$25,000 

250% 

Mt.  Tabor  District,  No.  5 

20  yrs. 

4    % 

7,000 

5,600 

12,600 

180% 

Lents  District,  No.  12    . 

10  yrs. 

6     % 

6,000 

3,600 

9,600 

160% 

Refunding,  District  No.  i 

20  yrs.1 

5     % 

90,000 

00,000 

180,000 

200% 

Jefferson  High  School  .    . 

10-20  yrs. 

4l/2% 

250,000 

174,375 

424,375 

170% 

Lincoln  High  School   .    . 

10-20  yrs. 

4^% 

350,000 

244,125 

594,125 

170% 

A  twenty-room  building, 

of  fireproof  construction 

10-20  yrs. 

5    % 

140,000 

108,500 

248,500 

178% 

Same      

I?-2'C  VTS. 

5    % 

140,000 

143,500 

283,500 

203% 

Same     

*J         J   J 

20-30  yrs. 

5    % 

^  > 
140,000 

178,500 

318,500 

228% 

1  Two  ten-year  periods. 

bonded  debt  of  the  school  district,  as  stated  in  the  Annual 
School  Reports,  and  also  for  a  twenty-classroom,  fireproof - 
construction,  Failing-School-type  of  new  building,  with 
bonds  maturing  at  different  periods. 

While  such  permanent-type  buildings  as  the  Failing 
School  or  the  Lincoln  High  School,  by  reason  of  their 
longer  usefulness  and  lower  maintenance  costs,  might  very 
properly  be  paid  for  by  bonding,  still,  in  view  of  the  large 
per  capita  bonded  debt  of  the  city  proper  (see  Chapter  VI, 
Table  XIII,  page  no),  it  is  certainly  wise  for  the  school 
department  to  pay  by  annual  tax  for  as  much  building  as 


The  Building  and  Sites  Problem  303 

can  reasonably  be  done.  This  policy,  as  long1  as  it  does  not 
unduly  cramp  the  proper  development  of  the  schools  for 
which  the  buildings  are  constructed,  is  a  wise  one  to  follow. 
It  perhaps  would  be  wise  to  segregate  the  funds  for 
building-and-site  outlays  from  the  funds  for  annual  main- 
tenance, as  suggested  in  Appendix  A  (page  421).  This 
would  give  the  Board  of  School  Directors  authority  to 
levy  certain  definite  and  separate  taxes  each  year,  estimated 
as  sufficient  to  meet  the  needs  of  ordinary  growth,  for  the 
purchase  of  sites  and  for  the  erection  of  school  buildings, 
and  other  separate  rates  for  maintenance,  instruction,  and 
administration.  Buildings  and  sites  which  could  not  be 
provided  for  under  such  a  plan  ought  to  be  provided  for  by 
bonding,  and  at  the  same  time  the  proper  development  of 
the  educational  work  within  the  buildings  would  be 
guaranteed. 


CHAPTER   XIII1 
THE    SCHOOL    PLANT 

CONSTRUCTION    UNITS 

BEFORE  one  undertakes  to  measure  anything1  with  any 
degree  of  accuracy,  he  must  decide  on  some  unit  of 
measurement.  Fortunately  there  are  a  number  of  rela- 
tively fixed  standards  which  should  be  universally  applied  in 
the  construction  of  what  is  known  in  our  country  as  public 
schoolhouses.  These  standards  have  to  do  with  the  dimen- 
sions of  classrooms,  the  lighting,  ventilation,  heating,  black- 
boards, and  color  of  the  walls.  They  also  include,  though 
somewhat  less  exactly  worked  out,  the  construction  of 
assembly  rooms,  stairways,  floors,  halls,  cloak  rooms,  toilets, 
baths,  and  water  supply,  the  cleaning  of  school  buildings, 
and  many  other  details.  Local  conditions,  however,  must 
always  be  considered  in  the  application  of  general  rules  to 
any  specific  situation.  These  will  be  mentioned  in  the  vari- 
ous parts  of  this  section,  and  their  bearing  on  the  prob- 
lems in  hand  discussed  in  their  proper  connection. 

It  will  be  impossible  in  this  brief  report  to  set  forth  in 
detail  all  the  reasons  for  the  recommendations  made;  but 
it  is  hoped  that  the  general  reasonableness  of  the  demands 
will  appeal  to  those  who  read  for  help,  not  merely  for 
criticism.2 

1  Chapter  XIII  was  written  by  Professor  F.  B.  Dresslar.  —  EDITOR. 

1  The  scientific  reasons  upon  which  many  of  the  arguments  of  this  chapter 
are  based  of  necessity  could  not  be  set  forth  in  full  here.  For  these  the  reader 
is  referred  to  a  work  by  the  author  of  this  chapter,  entitled  School  Hygiene.  — 
DIRECTOR. 

304 


The  School  Plant  305 

THE   SCHOOLHOUSE   SITE 

The  site  selected  for  a  school  building  should  be  at  a  safe 
distance  from  noisy  factories,  lumber  mills,  or  any  similar 
disturbances.  For  example,  the  Terwilliger  School  should 
never  have  been  located  where  it  is,  or  if  the  mills  in  the 
immediate  neighborhood  were  located  where  they  are  after 
the  school  was  built,  the  city  authorities  were  at  fault  in 
allowing  them  to  be  so  located.  The  usual  excuse  given 
for  locating  a  building  too  near  such  noisy,  dusty  places  is 
that  the  lot  selected  was  the  only  available  site.  This  is 
rarely  a  satisfactory  excuse,  for  the  state  has  devised  means 
to  get  what  is  needed.  Another  more  specific  excuse  often 
given  is  that  the  school  building  must  be  built  in  the  neigh- 
borhood where  the  children  live.  This  also  is  rarely  a  con- 
vincing reason.  It  would  be  far  better  for  the  majority  of 
the  children  to  walk  a  half-mile  to  a  quiet  place  for  a 
school,  than  to  have  a  school  building  at  their  very  doors 
where  they  will  be  compelled  to  work  all  day  assailed  by 
noise,  dirt,  and  dust.  A  good  walk  to  and  from  the  school 
building  is  healthful  and  often  more  serviceable  than  the 
gymnastic  exercises  prescribed  and  carried  out  in  the 
schoolrooms.  The  plain  duty  of  every  school  board  is  to 
shun  noisy,  smoky  mills  of  every  sort  when  selecting  a  site 
for  school  buildings. 

Kinds  of  Streets  to  be  "Avoided 

It  is  a  serious  mistake  to  build  a  schoolhouse  on  or  near 
a  car  line,  whether  this  be  a -steam-car  line  or  an  electric- 
car  line.  ,We  found  in  Portland  many  school  buildings  lo- 
cated on  streets  used  for  street-car  lines.  Some  of  the 
buildings  are  so  near  the  car  lines  that  not  only  is  the  noise 
greatly  disturbing  to  quiet  and  effective  work  in  the  school, 
but  in  dry  weather  clouds  of  dust  are  swept  up  and  some  of 
it  must  necessarily  be  drawn  into  the  classrooms.  On  ac- 
count of  its  humid  climate,  Portland  is  probably  less  troubled 


306  The  Portland  Survey 

by  dust  than  most  of  the  great  cities  of  the  country;  but 
even  here,  where  the  soil  is  light  and  silt-like,  dust  will  in 
time  be  a  very  troublesome  factor.  Dr.  Robert  Hessler,  who 
has  spent  many  years  investigating  the  relation  of  city  dust 
to  disease,  has  recently  come  to  the  conclusion  that  a  large 
amount  of  ill  health,  which  cannot  be  diagnosed  as  catarrh, 
tuberculosis,  or  influenza,  is  due  to  dust.  He  has  dared  to 
name  it  coniosis,  that  is,  ill  health  resulting  from  being  "  full 
of  dust."  Aside  from  the  distress  of  noise  and  the  dust 
troubles,  school  children  are  uselessly  endangered  at  inter- 
missions, and  on  coming  to  school  and  going  home,  when 
they  are  compelled  to  congregate  near  car  lines.  Children 
cannot  be  so  careful  as  adults,  and  all  adults  who  read  these 
lines  will  easily  remember  their  own  narrow  escapes. 
Everything  is  to  gain  and  nothing  to  lose  by  separating 
school  buildings  and  school  grounds  at  least  one  block  from 
street-car  lines.  I  found  by  actual  measurement  that  one 
large  school  building,  the  Peninsula  School,  was  so  close 
to  a  car  line  that  several  classrooms  were  not  over  50  feet 
from  the  track. 

Naturally  it  is  even  more  serious  a  mistake  to  build  school 
buildings  near  steam-car  tracks,  both  on  account  of  noise 
and  smoke  and  on  account  of  danger. 

Care  should  be  taken  also  to  select  streets  upon  which  no 
heavy  traffic  is  carried  by  wagons.  At  present  this  recom- 
mendation may  not  seem  of  much  importance  to  the  citizens 
of  Portland,  because  of  the  tremendous  use  made  of  the 
river  in  transportation.  But  the  time  will  come  very  soon 
when  much  heavy  hauling  will  encumber  the  streets  and 
accordingly  will  increase  the  noise  and  danger.  Many  large 
school  buildings  in  eastern  cities  are  situated  where  the 
traffic  is  so  annoying  that  good  school  work  is  impossible. 
In  some  cases  the  schools  have  been  so  disturbed  that  it 
seemed  necessary  either  to  close  the  streets,  or  to  abandon 
parts  of  their  school  buildings.  The  school  authorities  of 
Portland  have  the  opportunity  now  to  forestall  most  of 
such  difficulties,  and  they  will  be  derelict  in  their  duty  if 


The  School  Plant  307 

they  do   not  use  every  precaution   to  meet  these   future 
contingencies. 

THE  LIGHTING   PROBLEM 

Orientation  of  School  Buildings 

School  buildings  in  the  latitude  of  Portland  should  be 
so  planned  and  so  placed  on  the  lots  that  as  many  of  the 
classrooms  as  possible  may  command  the  east  or  west  light. 
Many  of  the  old  buildings  and  some  of  the  newer  ones  have 
been  constructed  with  apparently  no  conception  of  the 
significance  of  this  requirement.  In  order  that  this  recom- 
mendation may  not  appear  to  be  the  result  of  mere  personal 
opinion,  I  wish  to  explain  this  very  important  demand  some- 
what in  detail. 

In  the  first  place,  every  schoolroom  should  have  the  op- 
portunity of  the  purification  afforded  by  direct  sunshine,  at 
least  some  part  of  each  clear  day.  Warmth  and  moisture 
without  sunshine  furnish  the  best  possible  conditions  for  the 
growth  of  bacteria,  pathogenic  and  non-pathogenic,  and  it  is 
running  in  the  very  teeth  of  the  laws  of  health  to  construct 
schoolrooms  which  will  command  only  a  northern  light  ex- 
posure. Furthermore,  the  north  light,  while  it  is  generally 
well  diffused  and  soft,  is  not  so  strong  as  either  the  east  or 
west  light.  Especially  is  this  true  during  the  short,  dark 
days  of  a  Portland  winter.  It  is  better  during  the  long  and 
bright  days  of  summer,  but  this  is,  in  the  main,  the  vacation 
season,  and  hence  the  possible  gain  thereby  is  minimized. 
During  the  week  ending  May  17,  there  were  many  cloudy, 
rainy  days,  and  despite  the  fact  that  the  sun  rose  early  and 
set  late,  I  did  not  see  a  classroom,  depending  solely  on  north 
light,  which  was  properly  lighted.  This  was  especially  true 
of  those  buildings  in  which  the  windows  were  improperly  set.1 
Very  often  the  rooms  were  so  dark  as  to  cause  the  children 
to  strain  their  eyes  in  doing  the  ordinary  work  of  the  school. 
For  the  two  reasons,  therefore  —  lack  of  sunshine,  and  the 

1  See  pages  310-312. 


308  The  Portland  Survey 

dangers  due  to  insufficient  light  —  classrooms  with  north 
light  should  be  avoided. 

At  this  point  the  reader  may  have  concluded  that  because 
of  abundant  sunshine  and  strong  light,  classrooms  with  win- 
dows opening  toward  the  south  would  be  the  best.  Were  it 
not  for  other  difficulties  introduced,  this  conclusion  would 
be  justifiable.  Let  the  reader  place  himself  at  a  stationary 
desk,  where  he  can  have  little  opportunity  to  adjust  him- 
self to  the  light,  and  where  a  stream  of  sunshine  falls  across 
the  desk,  or  somewhere  in  the  line  of  his  vision.  He  will 
then  understand  one  of  the  difficulties  of  a  south  exposure. 
But  it  may  be  argued  that  shades  can  be  set  to  cut  out  the 
direct  sunshine  while  school  is  in  session.  This  is  difficult 
to  do,  without  so  reducing  the  amount  of  light  for  so  much 
of  the  day  that  those  pupils  who  sit  at  the  desks  farther  re- 
moved from  the  windows  will  be  hindered  in  their  work. 
I  have  yet  to  see,  anywhere  in  this  country,  a  classroom  for 
the  elementary  grades  satisfactorily  lighted  by  depending 
on  south  light.  Moreover,  I  took  occasion  to  interview 
many  teachers  in  the  Portland  schools,  working  in  class- 
rooms with  south  windows,  and  found  not  only  that  they 
were  often  greatly  disturbed  by  direct  sunlight  falling  on 
the  desks  of  the  pupils  near  the  windows,  but  also  that  they 
were  not  able  to  adjust  the  shades,  and  keep  them  adjusted, 
to  keep  out  the  direct  sunshine  and  at  the  same  time  not 
darken  the  room  too  much  for  those  seated  farther  from 
the  windows.  This  was  especially  true  in  classrooms  which 
had  been  built  too  wide  for  the  height  of  the  windows. 

East  and  West  Lighting 

Gassrooms  with  east  exposure  are  generally  better  for 
the  upper  grades,  because  such  rooms  get  a  sunning  before 
school  hours,  and  usually  offer  only  an  hour's  difficulty  with 
direct  sunshine,  between  9  and  10  o'clock  in  the  morning. 
During  the  remainder  of  the  day  the  shades  can  all  be  rolled 
up  and  the  strong  light  from  the  eastern  sky  admitted  with- 
out any  hindrance. 


The  School  Plant  309 

Those  classrooms  facing1  the  west  are  generally  better 
adapted  for  the  use  of  the  primary  grades,  especially  on  the 
first  floor,  because  these  grades  are  dismissed  before  the 
afternoon  sun  would  cause  any  serious  disturbance.  They 
can  also  be  used  for  the  upper  grades  with  but  little  more 
trouble  with  direct  sunshine  than  those  opening  toward 
the  east. 

All  classrooms  facing  east  or  west  have  another  advan- 
tage. They  permit  the  early  and  late  sunshine  to  cover 
almost  the  whole  floor  by  reason  of  the  low-lying  sun,  and 
thus  get  a  more  general  purification  than  even  a  south  ex- 
posure could  command  in  the  latitude  of  any  part  of  our 
country. 

To  recapitulate  briefly,  I  recommend  that  lots  should  be 
chosen,  and  buildings  planned  and  located,  in  such  a  way 
as  to  get  the  greatest  possible  number  of  the  classrooms 
with  east  or  west  light.  This  recommendation  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  the  health  and  comfort  and,  therefore, 
to  the  educational  progress  of  both  teachers  and  pupils.  A 
very  large  number  of  the  best  buildings  in  Portland  are  in- 
correctly lighted,  simply  because  this  fundamental  require- 
ment was  not  followed.  If  it  becomes  necessary  (it  should 
not  often  become  necessary)  to  open  some  rooms  to  the 
north  or  to  the  south,  these  should  be  assigned  for  art  rooms, 
manual-training  rooms,  libraries,  laboratories,  and  offices, 
but  avoided  for  classrooms,  especially  for  the  elementary 
and  primary  grades. 

Unilateral  Lighting 

Every  classroom  should  get  light  from  but  one  side,  and 
this  either  the  east  or  the  west.  It  was  a  pleasure  to  find 
that  most  of  the  better  buildings  of  Portland  comply  with 
this  requirement  in  the  lighting  of  their  classrooms,  but,  as 
noted  above,  many  of  them  depend  on  light  from  the  wrong 
direction.  The  demand  for  unilateral  lighting  is  simply  a 
demand  to  prevent  right-handed  children  —  and  we  are  a 


3io  The  Portland  Survey 

right-handed  race  —  from  being  compelled  to  write  in  the 
shadows  of  their  own  hands.  Left-handed  children  should 
be  taught  from  the  first  to  write  with  their  right  hands. 
This  is  not  a  difficult  task  if  taken  from  the  start,  and  it 
will  save  many  annoyances  all  through  life. 

Windows 

The  glass  surface  for  lighting  a  classroom  should,  in  prop- 
erly constructed  rooms,  approximate  one  fifth  of  the  floor 
surface.  If  any  special  local  conditions  are  likely  to  render 
the  problem  of  lighting  difficult,  this  ratio  should  be  in- 
creased to  one  fourth.  That  is  to  say,  if  the  product  of  the 
length  and  breadth  of  a  classroom  be  divided  by  4  (or  5), 
the  quotient  will  give  the  amount  of  glazing  the  room  will 
demand  for  sufficient  light.  This  will  be  true,  however, 
only  on  condition  that  the  windows  are  properly  placed,  and 
this  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  problems  school  men  have  to 
contend  with.  Architects  are  inclined  to  insist  on  appear- 
ances, regardless  of  the  rights  of  children.  In  order  to 
make  this  point  clear  and  forceful,  Figure  10,  showing  the 
proper  position  of  windows  in  a  classroom,  is  introduced. 

The  center  of  population  of  a  classroom,  if  such  a  phrase 
may  be  used  in  'this  connection,  is  somewhat  to  the  rear  of 
the  center  of  the  room,  because  there  must  be  an  extended 
open  space  in  front,  near  the  teacher's  desk,  to  give  needed 
room.  Hence,  the  center  of  the  window  area  should  also 
be  to  the  rear  of  the  center,  for  the  sake  of  the  proper  dis- 
tribution of  light  over  the  desks.  Furthermore,  the  main 
source  of  light  should  be  to  the  rear,  instead  of  to  the 
front  of  the  children.  The  only  light  that  is  useful  to  the 
children,  while  engaged  with  books  or  writing  paper,  is 
that  reflected  from  the  surface  of  the  pages  upon  which  they 
are  at  work.  Hence,  as  much  "  dead  wall "  is  needed  in 
front  as  we  can  get,  and  at  the  same  time  set  the  requisite 
amount  of  glazing. 

The  almost  universal  tendency  of  architects  is  to  set  the 


The  School  Plant 


windows  in  the  middle  of  the  wall  space,  leaving  as  much 
"  dead  wall "  space  in  the  rear  of  the  room  as  in  the  front. 
The  demand  for  symmetry  and  balance  prevails  with  them 
against  the  demand  for  hygienic  lighting.  Most,  if  not  all, 
of  the  newer  and  better  school  buildings  of  Portland  were 
constructed  to  meet  this  aesthetic  demand  of  balance  in- 
stead of  the  rights  and  needs  of  the  children.  I  have  no  hesi- 


CLASSROOM 


CLOAK 
ROOM 


FIG.  10.    PROPER  WINDOW  PLACING  IN  A  CLASSROOM 


tation  in  insisting  that  it  is  the  duty  of  all  architects  who 
undertake  the  construction  of  our  school  buildings  to  find 
some  way  to  meet  this  legitimate  requirement,  even  if  it 
must  be  done  at  the  expense  of  balance.  All  the  buildings 
of  the  type  of  the  Lents  School  have  wide  windows  set  to 
occupy  the  central  part  of  the  wall.  When  all  the  shades 
are  rolled  up,  the  light  from  the  front  window  shines,  to 
some  degree,  directly  in  the  eyes  of  many  of  the  children, 
and  therefore  is  likely  to  do  more  harm  than  good.  If  the 
front  windows  were  moved  to  the  rear,  the  change  would 


312  The  Portland  Survey 

be  most  agreeable  to  the  children.  Fortunately,  in  this 
type  of  building,  which  is  the  prevailing  type  in  Portland, 
the  windows  are  set  four  feet  from  the  floor,  and  as  a  result 
the  difficulty  mentioned  above  is  partly  neutralized.  I  ex- 
perimented with  the  children  in  a  large  number  of  these 
rooms,  and  found  an  almost  universal  preference  in  favor 
of  the  lighting  when  the  lower  half  of  the  front  window 
was  entirely  shaded  with  an  opaque  shade. 

Ribbed  and  Frosted  Glass 

I  found  a  somewhat  general  tendency  to  use  ribbed  glass 
in  the  upper  sash  or  to  employ  frosting  to  prevent  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun  from  disturbing  the  pupils  while  at  work  at 
their  desks.  This  is,  in  my  judgment,  a  serious  mistake. 
Ribbed  glass  is  useful  in  scattering  the  light  in  rooms  or 
halls  not  supplied  with  sufficient  window  area ;  but  it  always 
produces  a  rather  harsh,  glaring  effect,  and  is  very  trouble- 
some to  children  whose  eyes,  for  one  reason  or  another,  are 
weak  and  oversensitive.  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  all 
the  rooms  facing  east,  west,  and  south,  in  which  ribbed  glass 
is  used,  would  be  more  acceptable  with  clear  glass.  Some 
of  the  wide  north  rooms  are  probably  better  with  it.  The 
custom  of  "  frosting  "  the  windows  is  wholly  unjustifiable, 
for  it  keeps  out  much  of  the  best  light  all  the  time,  whereas 
the  purpose  was  merely  to  shut  out  the  glare  of  the  direct 
sunshine.  Proper  use  of  the  right  kind  of  window  shades 
is  always  to  be  preferred  to  frosted  glass,  even  where  the 
windows  are  on  the  south  side. 

Transoms 

It  is  worse  than  a  waste  of  money  to  place  transoms  over 
the  inside  doors  in  school  buildings.  This  custom  is  an 
architectural  remnant,  but  it  clings,  very  much  as  the  ap- 
pendix in  the  human  body.  In  the  construction  of  nearly 
all  the  school  buildings,  both  old  and  new,  much  money  has 
been  spent  on  transoms  which  are  absolutely  useless,  from 


The  School  Plant  313 

both  the  practical  and  the  architectural  point  of  view.  After 
making  careful  inquiry  as  to  their  possible  use,  from  teach- 
ers and  janitors,  and  after  rinding  that  most  of  them 
fastened  so  that  they  could  not  be  opened  if  desired,  my 
opinion  was  confirmed  that  it  is  always  better  to  leave  them 
out.  They  add  to  the  expense  of  the  building  and  serve 
only  as  places  to  catch  dust  and  dirt.  In  no  case  did  I  find 
them  clean,  and  in  some  cases  they  introduced  trying 
reflections. 

I  recommend,  therefore,  that  in  all  school  buildings  to  be 
constructed  in  the  future,  transoms  be  omitted. 

CLASSROOMS   AND   FURNISHINGS 

Size  of  Classrooms 

Many,  Indeed  most,  of  the  classrooms  of  the  Portland 
schools  are  unnecessarily  large.  In  the  first  place,  a  very 
large  number  of  them  are  too  wide.  I  found  by  measure- 
ment that  at  least  26  feet  is  the  prevailing  width  in  the 
wooden  buildings.  These  classrooms  would  accommodate 
the  same  number  of  pupils  if  they  were  reduced  3  feet  in 
width,  and  the  children  would  be  better  off.  Some,  also, 
are  38  to  40  feet  long,  when  30  feet  would  be  much  better. 
Besides  the  fact  that  this  extra  width  has  cost  much  money 
in  the  construction  of  large  buildings,  there  are  other  rea- 
sons for  recommending  that  in  all  future  plans  the  class- 
rooms should  be  narrowed  to  23  or  24  feet: 

1.  When  classrooms  are  lighted  from  one  side  only,  as 
they  should  be,  the  light  will  not  carry  well  across  a  room 
more  than  twice  the  height  of  the  windows.    In  fact,  in  the 
latitude  of  Portland,  where  there  are  many  dark  days  in 
winter,  it  is  more  than  probable  that  a  width  of  24  feet  will 
mean  the  seating  of  some  children  too  far  from  the  light 
to  do  their  work  economically  and  safely. 

2.  The  large  classrooms,  almost  universal  in  the  build- 
ings now  in  use,  require  more  fuel  to  keep  them  warm,  more 


314  The  Portland  Survey 

power  to  ventilate  them,  more  work  to  keep  them  clean,  and 
in  every  way  increase  the  daily  running  expenses. 

3.  It  is  more  difficult  for  children  to  hear  and  for  the 
teacher  to  be  heard ;  more  difficult  for  the  teacher  to  speak, 
to  keep  the  children's  undivided  interest,  and  to  manage  the 
school;    and  especially  more  difficult  to  get  the  requisite 
illumination  on  the  blackboard. 

4.  Finally,  when  the  size  of  the  room  is  approximately 
that  recommended,  there  is  less  likelihood  that  the  classes 
will  be  overcrowded,  to  the  detriment  of  the  work  and  the 
health  of  all  concerned. 

No  extended  discussion  need  be  introduced  here  with  ref- 
erence to  proper  length  of  the  room.  It  is  enough  to  say 
that  if  it  is  longer  than  30  feet,  the  children  in  the  rear  of 
the  room  will  have  difficulty  in  understanding  the  teacher 
and  great  difficulty  in  reading  charts,  maps,  or  what  is 
written  on  the  blackboard,  in  the  front  of  the  room. 

Height  of  Classrooms 

The  height  of  the  classroom  deserves  some  special  com- 
ment. A  large  number  of  the  better  buildings  were  planned 
with  classrooms  14  feet  high.  Some  of  the  older  ones  — 
the  Portsmouth  will  serve  as  an  example  —  have  classrooms 
with  ceilings  more  than  15  feet  above  the  floors.  The  new 
and  splendid  Lincoln  High  School  is  still  worse.  The  height 
of  the  classrooms  on  the  first  floor  of  this  building  is  16  feet 
8  inches  in  the  clear.  That  of  the  classrooms  on  the  second 
floor  15  feet,  while  that  on  the  third  floor  is  13  feet.  Con- 
sider a  moment  what  this  means.  All  the  walls,  pipes,  ducts, 
and  chimneys  of  this  building  are  5  feet  taller  than  any 
possible  need,  and  this  extra  amount  has  cost  many  thou- 
sands of  dollars,  to  no  purpose  whatever.  Granted  that 
the  first  or  main  floor  of  a  great  high  school  building  should 
be  dignified,  a  ceiling  14  feet  high  would  have  been  ample. 
The  second  story  could  have  been  reduced  to  13  feet  to  ad- 


The  School  Plant  315 

vantage,  while  the  third  (there  should  never  be  a  third  story 
in  high  school  buildings)  could  have  been  reduced  6  inches. 
But,  while  the  expense  of  construction  was  thus  uselessly 
increased,  this  is  really  the  least  serious  part  of  the  situation. 
Every  time  a  girl  climbs  from  the  first  floor  to  the  third,  she 
climbs  at  least  5  feet  higher  than  she  would  have  been  com- 
pelled to  climb  if  the  building  had  been  planned  with  the 
actual  demands  of  school  life  in  mind.  This  is  a  very  seri- 
ous hardship  to  throw  upon  the  thousands  of  girls  who  will 
attend  this  school  during  the  hundreds  of  years  it  ought 
to  stand.  Furthermore,  more  time  is  wasted  in  passing, 
much  more  fuel  is  used  daily  in  heating,  there  is  more  ex- 
pense in  upkeep,  and  in  many  other  ways  difficulties  and 
expenses  have  been  introduced  by  making  these  classrooms 
too  high. 

I  wish  to  say,  as  emphatically  as  I  can,  that  there  is  no 
need  for  making  the  height  of  any  classroom  in  grammar 
schools  more  than  12^  feet,  and  if  the  Board  of  Education 
will  follow  this  rule  in  all  future  buildings,  they  will  get 
better  buildings  at  greatly  reduced  expense. 

Floors  of  School  Buildings 

The  underwriters  have  induced  the  authorities  to  permit 
no  oil  to  be  used  on  the  floors,  and  many  of  the  buildings 
are  showing  the  effects  of  this  prohibition.  It  is  my  opin- 
ion that  the  janitors  should  be  allowed  to  use  a  light  oil, 
when  properly  directed  in  its  application.  The  main  oppo- 
sition to  the  various  kinds  of  floor  oils  which  have  been  used 
has  arisen  from  the  fact  that  too  much  oil  was  used,  and 
also  that  the  floors  were  not  properly  prepared  to  receive  it. 
If  floors  are  thoroughly  cleaned  of  all  dirt  and  dust,  and  the 
oil  is  spread  on  thinly  and  evenly  so  that  it  will  all  be  equally 
absorbed  into  the  boards,  it  will  not  soil  the  skirts  of  the 
women.  It  should  be  put  on,  however,  when  the  school- 
rooms will  not  be  in  use  for  a  few  days,  so  as  to  give  oppor- 
tunity to  be  taken  up  by  the  floor  boards.  When  so  handled, 


316  The  Portland  Survey 

the  dust  accumulating  on  the  floor  draws  just  enough  oil  out 
of  the  floor  to  render  the  under  particles  heavier,  but  not 
enough  to  be  saturated.  Under  these  conditions,  and  with 
the  additional  use  of  a  sweeping  compound,  the  floors  can 
be  swept  with  a  brush  without  stirring  up  clouds  of  dust. 
Besides,  the  oil  preserves  the  floors,  keeps  them  from  splin- 
tering, prevents  them  from  shrinking,  and  makes  them  more 
sanitary. 

Doubtless  the  sole  reason  for  the  objection  urged  by  the 
underwriters  is  the  probable  added  danger  from  fires  when 
oil  is  used.  Theoretically  there  may  be  some  truth  in  the 
contention,  but  the  increased  danger  due  to  proper  oiling  is 
so  slight  that  it  should  not  outweigh  all  other  considerations. 
Besides,  I  know  of  no  proof  to  the  effect  that  losses  by  fire 
have  been  more  common  in  school  buildings  so  treated  than 
in  those  where  oil  has  not  been  used.  I  hope,  therefore,  some 
understanding  may  be  reached  between  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation and  the  underwriters  which  will  permit  the  careful 
and  proper  use  of  some  good  floor  dressing.  Otherwise, 
it  is  only  a  question  of  a  short  time  when  all  the  wooden 
floors  of  the  school  buildings  of  Portland  will  be  in  a  bad 
condition.  One  thing  is  certain,  the  added  danger  to  the 
children  in  the  schools,  with  the  excellent  fire  drills  now 
so  well  organized  in  all  buildings,  would  be  infinitesimal. 

School  Desks 

The  children  of  Portland  are  generally  large  and  well 
developed.  This  fact,  coupled  with  the  fact  that  great  num- 
bers are  over  age  for  their  grades,  renders  the  problem 
of  properly  adjusting  the  seats  to  the  children  somewhat 
difficult.  I  found  many  large  boys,  and  not  a  few  girls,  who 
were  sitting  at  desks  entirely  too  low  for  them.  These 
children,  some  of  them  the  most  promising  in  school,  are 
being  compelled  to  sit  day  after  day  in  cramped  and  fa- 
tiguing postures.  Others  were  in  seats  entirely  too  large 
for  them,  and  could  not  touch  the  floor  with  their  feet.  This 


The  School  Plant  317 

ought  to  be  remedied  at  once.  Many  other  desks,  while  large 
enough,  or  even  too  large  for  the  children  who  occupied 
them,  were  set  in  a  faulty  manner.  The  seat  board  should 
extend  under  the  edge  of  the  desk  about  two  inches,  in  order 
that  the  child  may  have  the  support  of  the  back  rest  and 
yet  not  be  too  far  away  from  his  work.  Janitors  and  others 
who  place  desks  should  be  taught  exactly  how  to  set  them. 

I  recommend  that  many  more  adjustable  desks  be  sup- 
plied, and  that  all  desks  be  set  under  the  guidance  of  some- 
one who  knows  exactly  where  and  how  to  place  them.  This 
is  a  proper  place  for  an  extension  of  the  supervision  and 
authority  of  the  Superintendent  of  Properties. 

Blackboards 

The  prevailing  blackboards  furnished  the  schools  are  ex- 
ceedingly unsatisfactory  with  reference  to  high  light  and 
the  consequent  difficulty  the  children  have  of  easily  seeing 
what  is  written  on  these  boards.  They  reflect  so  much  of 
the  light  that  they  are  very  troublesome  and  trying  on  the 
eyes  of  both  teachers  and  pupils.  In  addition,  most  of  the 
blackboards  are  too  green  and  are  not  restful  to  the  eye. 
The  best  blackboard  material  available  in  this  country  is  a 
good  quality  of  natural  slate.  Glass  blackboards  are  used 
extensively  in  England,  and  when  properly  prepared  and 
set  are  better  than  slate,  but  they  are  more  expensive  and 
not  so  easily  available  as  slate. 

I  recommend,  therefore,  that  in  all  future  buildings  a 
good  quality  of  natural  slate  be  used  and  that  it  be  set  under 
careful  supervision.  The  prepared  blackboards  now  in  use 
in  the  great  majority  of  schools  should  be  supplanted  by 
slate  and  set  as  follows :  In  the  classrooms  designed  for  the 
first  and  second  grades,  the  boards  should  be  set  not  over 
27  inches  from  the  floor ;  in  those  rooms  used  for  third  and 
fourth  grades,  28  inches;  for  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades, 
30  inches,  and  for  seventh  and  eighth,  32  inches  above  the 
floor.  In  high  schools,  36  inches  above  the  floor  is  better. 


318  The  Portland  Survey 

The  blackboard  on  the  wall  at  the  end  of  the  room  near  the 
teacher's  desk  is  better  set,  for  all  rooms,  36  inches  above 
the  floor.  The  width  of  the  board  may  vary  from  three  to 
four  feet,  setting-  the  narrower  slabs  in  the  rooms  for  the 
lower  grades,  and  the  wider  ones  in  the  rooms  for  the 
upper  grades  and  high  schools.  The  boards  for  the  teachers 
of  all  grades  are  better  when  four  feet  wide. 

Much  relief  from  chalk  dust  may  be  secured  by  setting 
and  hinging  in  the  chalk  trough  narrow  strips  of  one-eighth- 
inch  wire  mesh,  so  that  the  chalk  dust  may  fall  through,  and 
the  erasers  and  chalk  thus  be  kept  from  coming-  in  contact 
with  the  dust.  This  will  keep  the  erasers  and  chalk  cleaner 
and  will  prevent  the  children  from  soiling  their  clothing 
and  scattering  this  harsh,  unwholesome  dust  throughout 
the  schoolroom. 

STAIR   BANISTERS 

A  great  majority  of  the  buildings  have  open  grill-work 
banisters,  either  of  iron  or  wooden  construction.  There  are 
two  good  reasons  why  it  is  much  better  to  use  the  solid  form 
of  construction.  In  the  first  place,  banisters  of  the  open 
form  are  exceedingly  difficult  to  keep  free  from  dust.  The 
janitors  are  compelled  to  use  brushes  or  cloths  to  clean  them 
thoroughly.  This  they  have  not  time,  or  at  least  do  not 
take  time,  to  do.  Hence  the  banisters  are  almost  invariably 
dusty.  In  the  second  place,  girls  in  passing  up  or  down, 
especially  in  high  schools  and  the  upper  grammar  grades, 
are  often  needlessly  exposed  to  the  gaze  of  those  on  the 
floor  below,  and,  hence,  a  moral  situation  is  involved.  A 
solid  banister  removes  this  difficulty.  For  these  two  rea- 
sons, I  wish  to  recommend  the  use  of  solid  banisters,  simi- 
lar to  those  now  being  constructed  in  the  Jonesmore  School. 

ASSEMBLY  ROOMS 

In  most  of  the  better  buildings  of  the  city  there  is  an  as- 
sembly room  on  the  second  floor,  but  it  is  apparently  much 


The  School  Plant  319 

more  used  as  a  gymnasium  than  as  an  assembly  room.  This 
is  unfortunate.  The  assembly  room  ought  to  be  used  every 
day  as  a  meeting  place  for  all  the  grades  above  the  third, 
if  not  for  the  whole  school.  Here  is  where  school  spirit  is 
kindled,  where  principal  and  teachers  may  meet  with  all  the 
children  and  foster  that  spirit  of  unity  and  helpfulness  fun- 
damental in  a  democratic  government.  A  few  minutes  de- 
voted to  chorus  work  and  some  form  of  devotional  or  ethi- 
cal service,  will  set  standards  for  the  day  and  send  the 
children  to  their  respective  rooms  in  a  mood  for  more  seri- 
ous and  purposeful  study.  There  is  no  fault  to  find  with 
the  gymnasium  work  I  saw,  for  it  was  excellent  in  every 
way.  But  a  special  room  should  be  built  to  be  used  for 
this  work  when  the  weather  is  too  inclement  to  go  on  the 
playground,  and  the  assembly  room  used  for  assembly 
purposes. 

I  earnestly  recommend  that  in  all  future  buildings  the  as- 
sembly room  be  on  the  first  floor,  and  that  it  be  used  daily 
for  school  exercises  in  singing,  speaking,  or  illustrated  lec- 
tures, and  also  be  made  available  for  general  neighborhood 
gatherings  of  an  educational  or  a  social  nature.  An  as- 
sembly room  on  the  first  floor  is  much  safer,  more  usable, 
and  more  accessible  than  one  on  the  second  floor.  Practi- 
cally all  the  newer  and  better  school  buildings  of  the  country 
have  this  room  on  the  first  floor,  furnished  with  fixed  seats, 
large  stage,  good  light,  and  ample  ventilation.  This  change 
has  come  about  as  the  result  of  the  changing  conception  of 
the  uses  to  which  a  school  building  may  be  put.1  It  stands 
for  education  in  its  broadest  sense ;  not  merely  for  the  edu- 
cation of  the  children,  but  of  adults  as  well.  It  is  the  only 
building  in  which  all  the  people,  both  children  and  adults, 
have  a  personal  interest,  and  in  which  all  may  meet  on  a 
footing  of  equal  freedom.  An  assembly  room  so  situated  and 
always  ready  can  become  the  center  of  a  tremendous  influ- 
ence, both  inside  and  outside  the  ordinary  school  work.  The 
logical  neighborhood  center  should  be  the  school  building. 

1  See  Chapter  XI,  page  273. 


320  The  Portland  Survey 


FLOATING    CEILINGS 

A  difficulty  which  is  found  in  the  concrete  fireproof  build- 
ings ought  to  be  corrected  by  the  architects.  I  refer  to  the 
fact  that  the  acoustic  properties  are  very  bad.  So  far  as  I 
could  determine,  this  rather  serious  difficulty  is  largely  due 
to  "  floating  "  ceilings  of  cement  plaster  on  suspended  steel 
lathing  material.  Troublesome  echoes  are  especially  notice- 
able in  the  rooms  and  halls  of  the  Rose  City  Park  School, 
and  will  be  equally  serious  in  the  Jonesmore  School  now 
under  construction.  The  ceilings  of  these  buildings,  unless 
deadened  in  some  effective  way,  will  always  act  as  a  sound- 
ing board.  I  took  occasion  while  in  Portland  to  recommend 
that  precaution  be  taken  immediately  to  deaden  the  ceilings 
in  the  Jonesmore  School,  before  it  was  too  late.  I  hope 
some  economical  way  can  be  found  to  remove  this  difficulty 
in  the  Rose  City  Park  School.  Echoes  were  noticed  in  the 
Fernwood  School  also,  though  the  trouble  there  seemed 
not  to  be  so  pronounced.  In  addition  to  the  resonance  of 
the  ceilings,  it  is  probable  that  the  walls  between  the  class- 
rooms add  to  the  difficulty. 


OPEN-AIR    SCHOOLS 

It  was  a  disappointment  not  to  find  a  single  open-air  room 
or  school  in  the  public  schools  of  Portland.  From  what  I 
saw  of  the  children,  I  am  sure  there  are  many  who  would 
be  greatly  benefited  if  they  were  taught  in  open-air  class- 
rooms. The  climate  of  this  city  offers  unusually  good 
opportunities  for  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  open- 
air  schools,  with  comparatively  little  expense  and  few  pre- 
cautions. It  is  almost  a  crime  to  shut  up  puny,  anaemic 
children  in  a  hot  schoolroom,  where,  even  under  the  best  con- 
ditions, the  air  cannot  be  kept  as  pure  as  it  is  out-of-doors. 
Open-air  schools  are  no  longer  experiments.  They  have 


The  School  Plant  321 

proved  very  beneficial  under  hard  and  trying  conditions,  as, 
for  example,  in  the  winter  climate  of  Chicago  and  Boston. 
In  the  mild  climate  of  Portland  better  results  may  be  at- 
tained, with  less  trouble  and  fewer  objections. 

The  late  Dr.  Arthur  Cabot  predicted  that  "  the  time  will 
soon  come  when  all  schools  will  be  open-air  schools." 
Whether  this  prophecy  will  prove  to  be  true  no  one  can 
say,  but  it  is  certain  that  great  gain  would  accrue  to  our 
children  if  larger  numbers  were  taught  in  the  fresh  air. 
There  is  a  rapidly  growing  sentiment,  based  on  sound  doc- 
trine, that  if  open-air  schools  are  good  for  sick  children, 
they  would  be  better  for  well  children.  Why  wait  until 
children  become  anaemic,  scrofulous,  tuberculous,  or  even 
sluggish  before  we  give  them  freedom  and  fresh  air? 
Open-air  schools  have  not  only  proved  beneficial  for  the 
great  majority  of  children  whose  physical  conditions  are 
below  standard,  but  they  have  likewise  proved  that  the 
mental  life  is  quickened  and  the  work  of  the  school  is  done 
with  more  zest  and  better  results. 

I  sincerely  hope,  therefore,  that  a  sane  and  systematic 
attempt  will  be  made  to  introduce  at  least  one  open-air 
classroom  in  all  the  larger  elementary  schools  of  the  city. 
Little  expense  is  needed  to  turn  indoor  classrooms  into  fairly 
good  open-air  rooms.  The  simplest,  if  not  the  best  way,  is 
to  select  an  east  or  west  room,  replace  the  present  sliding 
sashes  with  a  one-piece  sash,  hinged  to  the  top  of  the 
frame,  and  with  pulleys  and  cords  to  open  it  inward,  draw- 
ing it  up  to  the  ceiling.  This,  of  course,  will  require  that 
the  frames  be  specially  prepared  and  finished,  so  that  when 
the  sash  is  closed  beating  rains  will  not  harm  the  building. 
Pivoted  sashes  are  also  used,  but  these  are  frequently  in 
the  way  when  opened,  and  they  are  likely  to  produce 
troublesome  reflections.1 

1  See  also  Chapter  XIV,  pages  355  to  358. 


322  The  Portland  Survey 


THE   HEATING    PROBLEM 

Temperature  of  the  Schoolrooms 

The  temperature  of  the  classrooms  was,  during  the  two 
weeks  of  my  examination,  almost  invariably  too  high.  I 
found  many  rooms  considerably  above  70°  F.,  some  above 
75°,  despite  the  fact  that  the  outside  air  was  always  lower. 
It  is  my  opinion  that  the  maximum  temperature  of  the 
schoolrooms  of  Portland  should  not  exceed  67°  F.,  when 
fires  are  used.  In  fact,  I  feel  that  this  is  a  very  conservative 
estimate,  for  in  the  humid  climate  of  this  city  67°  F.  is  rel- 
atively warmer  than  70°  F.  in  the  dry  winter  air  of  class- 
rooms in  most  of  the  Central  and  Eastern  states.  The  cli- 
mate of  Portland  is  similar  to  that  of  England  in  many 
respects,  except  that  winter  days  are  not  quite  so  short  and 
the  summer  days  are  neither  quite  so  long  nor  so  humid. 
The  maximum  temperature  recommended  for  the  school- 
rooms of  England  is  65°  F. 

If  this  recommendation  for  the  reduction  of  the  temper- 
ature in  the  Portland  schools  is  followed,  the  children  will 
be  able  to  do  their  work  with  less  lassitude,  with  keener  in- 
terest, and  with  much  advantage  to  their  health.  Dr. 
Thomas  Harrington,  Director  of  the  Department  of  School 
Hygiene  of  Boston  Public  Schools,  has  recently  made  an 
investigation  as  to  the  influence  of  heating  and  ventilation 
on  anaemia,  glandular  enlargement,  and  sickness  among 
teachers  and  pupils,  and  has  found  that  among  3,009  cases 
of  pronounced  anaemia,  2,377  cases  were  in  classrooms  where 
the  temperature  was  69°  and  over;  321  cases  were  in  class- 
rooms with  a  temperature  of  68°,  while  only  235  cases 
were  in  classrooms  with  a  temperature  between  64°  and 
67°  F.  inclusive.  While  this  investigation  proves  noth- 
ing for  Portland,  it  is  in  line  with  the  recommendation 
made.  Besides,  Portland  is  far  better  conditioned  as  to 
climate  for  maintaining  a  low  temperature  than  is  Boston. 
It  is  a  serious  handicap  to  the  physical  and  mental  develop- 


The  School  Plant  323 

ment  of  the  children  of  Portland  to  permit  the  temperature 
to  approximate  70°  F.  in  the  classrooms,  as  is  now  com- 
monly done. 

By  investigation  and  inquiry  I  found  that,  in  the  main, 
where  thermostats  were  installed  they  were  set  to  keep  the 
minimum  at  68°  and  that  they  often  permitted  more  than 
70°.  Many  of  the  thermostats  were  not  sufficiently  sensi- 
tive to  regulate  within  the  limits  of  two  degrees.  I  recom- 
mend that  instead  of  being  set  for  a  minimum  temperature 
of  68°,  they  be  set  for  a  minimum  of  65°  and  kept  sensitive 
enough  so  that  they  will  never  allow  a  higher  temperature 
than  67°.  I  wish  to  recommend  further  that  those  who  have 
the  care  of  the  thermostats  be  strictly  charged  with  the 
duty  of  keeping  them  in  better  condition  and  within  these 
limits,  and  that  all  schools  depending  on  a  central  heating 
system,  not  now  supplied  with  thermostats,  be  so  equipped 
at  once. 

Hot-air  Furnaces 

The  prevailing  method  of  heating  the  classrooms  is  that 
of  the  hot-air  furnace.  There  can  be  no  serious  objection 
offered  to  this  method  in  the  climate  of  Portland,  providing 
the  furnaces  are  kept  in  good  repair,  and  providing  also  that 
a  plenum-fan  system  of  ventilation  is  used  in  connection 
with  them.  Those  furnaces  out  of  repair  may  leak,  when 
coal  is  used  for  supplementary  fuel,  and  some  of  the  gas 
may  pass  into  the  warm  air  about  the  heater  and  thence  into 
the  schoolroom,  especially  when  the  fan  is  not  running. 
If  a  good  pressure  is  maintained  by  the  fan,  there  is  little  or 
no  danger  when  the  furnaces  are  in  good  repair,  and  espe- 
cially when  wood  alone  is  used  for  fuel. 

The  hot-air  furnace  system  is  well  adapted  to  the  climate 
of  Portland,  where  comparatively  mild  humid  weather  pre- 
vails the  greater  part  of  the  school  year,  and  if  rationally 
used  will  prove  effective  and  fairly  economical  of  fuel. 

In  this  connection,  I  wish  to  recommend  that  the  warm- 
air  ducts  leading  from  the  plenum  chambers  to  the  class- 


324  The  Portland  Survey 

rooms  be  covered  with  a  good  quality  of  asbestos  paper,  to 
prevent  loss  of  heat  in  cold  weather.  I  found  that  this 
precaution  had  been  taken  in  only  a  few  of  the  buildings. 
There  would  be  a  great  saving  in  fuel,  less  work  for  the 
janitors,  and  more  wholesome  conditions  furnished  in  the 
schoolrooms,  if  these  ducts  were  covered  in  all  the  buildings. 
Despite  all  a  janitor  may  do,  basement  doors  are  frequently 
open,  and  in  cold  weather  there  is  opportunity  for  the  loss 
of  much  heat  through  radiation  from  uncovered  warm-air 
ducts. 

It  is  my  opinion  that  high-pressure  steam  plants  should 
not  be  installed  in  any  buildings  where  steam  power  is  not 
a  prime  desideratum.  It  is  expensive  to  install  and  requires, 
or  should  require,  a  licensed  engineer,  in  order  to  minimize 
the  danger  to  the  children  and  to  secure  the  proper  care  of 
a  high-pressure  boiler.  If  a  detached  building  is  used  for  a 
high-pressure  steam-heating  plant,  the  danger  will  be  much 
reduced.  A  high-pressure  steam  system  is  often  thought 
necessary  for  manual-training  buildings;  but  even  in  such 
buildings,  electric  power  is  to  be  preferred,  and  in  Portland 
should  add  little  or  no  extra  expense  to  the  total  cost. 

One  advantage  of  the  hot-air  system  in  a  climate  as  gen- 
erally mild  as  that  of  Portland  arises  from  the  fact  that 
when  but  a  little  artificial  heat  is  needed  to  secure  the  tem- 
perature desired,  such  a  system  requires  less  fuel  than  a 
steam-heating  system,  which  always  requires  sufficient  fires 
to  get  up  steam.  However,  a  system  of  indirect  steam  heat- 
ing insures  more  regular  heat  in  cold  weather  than  can  easily 
be  maintained  with  the  use  of  a  hot-air  furnace. 

My  observation  seemed  to  show  that  if  ample  fan  power 
were  installed;  if  thermostats  were  placed  in  all  the  build- 
ings; if  the  warm-air  ducts  were  properly  protected  against 
rapid  radiation,  and  if  the  thermostats  were  better  ad- 
justed and  persistently  kept  in  repair,  the  heating  systems 
in  practically  all  of  the  better  school  buildings  of  Portland 
are  ample.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  my  examinations  were 
made  in  mild  weather,  it  is  impossible  for  me  to  speak  with 


The  School  Plant  325 

absolute  certainty  on  this  point.  Janitors,  though,  generally 
agreed  that  they  were  able  to  meet  the  demands  in  the 
coldest  weather.  In  those  buildings  depending  on  gravity  to 
introduce  warmed  air  into  the  classrooms,  even  heating  is 
not  possible  because  of  the  fact  that  open  windows  will  have 
to  be  depended  on  for  ventilation. 


VENTILATION   OF  SCHOOLROOMS 

Contrary  to  the  common  belief,  it  is  more  difficult  to 
ventilate  in  a  satisfactory  way  a  closed  schoolroom  in  a  mild 
climate  than  the  same  kind  of  room  in  a  cold  climate.  In 
the  former  case  more  reliance  must  be  placed  on  a  fan,  for 
the  difference  between  the  temperature  of  the  outside  air 
and  that  desirable  in  a  classroom  is  so  slight  that  compara- 
tively little  aid  is  given  through  the  force  of  gravity.  In 
the  latter  case  the  pressure  from  without  toward  the  warm 
schoolroom  is  great  enough  to  aid  materially  in  the  intro- 
duction of  fresh  air.  All  schools  of  the  type  now  in  use  in 
Portland  must,  therefore,  be  supplied  with  adequate  fans 
to  drive  in  the  air  and  ample  outlets  from  the  schoolrooms 
to  secure  sufficiently  rapid  change  of  air.  Some  of  the  build- 
ings are  not  supplied  with  fans  at  all,  and  others  are  sup- 
plied with  fans  of  insufficient  capacity  to  meet  the  demands, 
without  running  them  at  too  rapid  a  rate.  The  ventilation 
at  the  Chapman  School  was  insufficient  on  the  day  of  my 
visit,  a  defect  which  seemed  to  be  due  either  to  the  lack  of 
fan  capacity,  or  to  errors  in  the  construction  of  ducts  lead- 
ing to  the  classrooms,  or  to  both  factors  combined.  The 
same  criticism  might  be  applied  with  equal  force  to  several 
other  schools. 

I  earnestly  recommend  that  in  all  buildings  erected  in  the 
future  larger  fans  be  installed  and  larger  ducts,  inlets,  and 
exits  be  used,  so  that  abundance  of  fresh  air  may  be  se- 
cured with  the  fans  running  at  a  moderate  speed.  More 
care  should  be  taken  in  shaping  the  mouth  of  the  inlet  duct 
so  that  the  air  will  be  spread  evenly  and  quickly  over  the 


326  The  Portland  Survey 

rooms  without  creating  drafts  in  particular  parts  of  the 
rooms.  One  reason  for  complaint  on  account  of  drafts  in 
cold  weather  is  due  to  the  thermostats  chiefly  used.  They 
call  for  either  warm  air  or  cold  air.  When  cold  air  is  driven 
in,  the  difference  in  temperature  is  quickly  noticed  by  those 
on  the  farther  side  of  the  room.  This  difficulty  can  be  over- 
come either  by  regulation  through  tempering  coils,  if  steam 
is  used,  or  through  a  tempering  furnace  if  the  hot-air  sys- 
tem is  used.  Various  forms  of  mixing  dampers  are  also  in 
use  to  overcome  this  objection.  If  the  air  driven  in  is  well 
tempered,  there  is  little  danger  from  such  drafts  as  are 
felt  at  times  from  fans.  The  fact  is  the  body  is  in  constant 
need  of  a  fresh-air  bath  to  keep  it  in  good  condition  and  to 
prevent  that  heavy,  stuffy  feeling,  partly  due  to  the  accumu- 
lation of  heat  in  the  tissues. 

In  all  buildings  to  be  erected  in  the  future  I  would  urge 
that  the  wire  shields  on  both  the  inlet  ducts  and  the  exit 
ducts  be  left  off,  for  they  offer  far  more  friction  to  the  in- 
coming and  outgoing  air  than  one  would  imagine.  In- 
variably, when  the  entrance  to  the  exit  duct  is  covered  with 
one  of  these  wire  screens,  the  lower  part  of  the  duct  is  the 
gathering  place  for  all  kinds  of  lint,  dust,  and  dirt,  the 
flotsam  and  jetsam  of  a  busy  schoolroom.  The  janitors 
cannot  get  it  out  without  going  to  a  great  deal  of  trouble, 
and  this  they  rarely  have  time  to  do.  In  every  classroom  in 
Portland  where  these  screens  are  used  there  is  an  unsightly, 
dirty  place.  In  all  buildings  constructed  in  the  future  it 
would  be  better  to  finish  the  opening  of  the  exit  ducts  so 
that  no  screen  is  needed  to  make  their  appearance  accept- 
able, and  so  that  they  may  be  kept  clean  and  wholesome 
without  difficulty.  The  inlet  ducts  should  be  finished  with 
gratings  so  constructed  as  to  cause  the  incoming  air  current 
to  be  deflected  toward  the  ceiling  and  ends  of  the  classroom, 
and  thus  to  be  well  distributed  over  the  room.  Such  grat- 
ings will  suffice  for  all  the  protection  these  ducts  will  need. 

There  has  always  been  some  objection  on  the  part  of 
teachers  and  patrons  to  the  plenum  system  of  ventilation, 


The  School  Plant  327 

and  these  criticisms  have  often  been  justified.  Unless  the 
fans  are  large  enough  to  deliver  abundance  of  fresh  air, 
to  distribute  it  impartially,  and  to  keep  it  moving  in  the 
schoolroom,  good  and  satisfactory  ventilation  cannot  be  ac- 
complished. But  there  is  a  psychological  effect  that  counts 
for  much,  in  the  judgment  of  teachers  and  pupils,  with  regard 
to  the  efficiency  of  this  form  of  ventilation.  They  imagine 
the  air  is  bad  because  the  windows  and  doors  are  closed. 
This  suggestion  can  only  be  overcome  by  good  ventilation 
and  experience.  Whenever,  however,  there  is  persistent 
complaint,  I  have  found  that  generally  there  is  some  real 
ground  for  it.  If  2,000  cubic  feet  of  pure  air  per  pupil  is 
supplied  and  well  distributed  each  hour  in  the  classrooms, 
complaints  generally  cease,  and  the  children  will  be  well 
cared  for,  providing  the  temperature  maintained  is  not  too 
high.  The  effect  of  overheating  is  often  mistaken  for  lack 
of  ventilation.  Under  the  conditions  I  have  suggested, 
with  large  fans  and  ample  inlet  and  exit  ducts,  the  plenum- 
fan  system  is  the  best  method  now  available  for  schoolroom 
ventilation. 

Ventilation  of  Toilets 

The  ventilation  of  the  toilets  and  urinals  of  all  the  older 
buildings,  and  many  of  the  newer  ones,  is  very  bad.  In 
fact,  most  of  them  get  no  ventilation  save  through  doors 
and  windows.  In  many  cases  the  attempts  made  to  ventilate 
them  through  ducts  leading  to  the  chimneys  are  simply 
delusions.  These  means  are  not  effective.  In  some  cases 
this  is  serious,  and  will  be  spoken  of  more  at  length  under 
the  topic  on  toilets  and  urinals. 

Fresh-air  Intakes 

Most  of  the  better  schools  receive  their  fresh  air  from  a 
point  well  above  ground,  and  this  is  a  wise  precaution.  But 
the  fresh-air  passages  between  the  fans  and  the  outer  air  in 
many  of  the  buildings  were  used  for  storage  of  paint  cans, 
oil  cans,  old  benches,  and  various  other  kinds  of  debris. 


328  The  Portland  Survey 

This  ought  not  to  be  allowed  at  all,  for  this  passage  should 
be  absolutely  clean,  and  free  from  anything  that  would 
retard  the  flow  of  air  toward  the  fans.  Also,  many  of  these 
passages  or  rooms  for  the  fresh-air  intake  were  not  prop- 
erly inclosed,  and  as  a  result  many  classrooms  are  being 
partly  supplied  with  air  from  the  basements,  instead  of 
from  the  proper  source.  I  found  one  building  where  the 
janitor  had  the  door  leading  from  the  basement  to  this 
fresh-air  chamber  propped  open,  so  he  could  hear  the  fan 
running,  he  said.  Naturally,  he  was  furnishing  a  large 
per  cent,  of  basement  air  to  the  classrooms.  Such  lack  of 
knowledge  on  the  part  of  a  janitor  is  a  good  illustration  of 
the  need  of  a  course  of  training  for  janitors. 

I  wish  to  recommend,  therefore,  that  the  fresh-air  intake 
rooms  be  kept  clean ;  that  they  be  made  practically  air-tight 
from  the  other  parts  of  the  basement;  that  as  far  as  pos- 
sible the  fresh  air  be  taken  from  the  level  of  the  second 
floor,  as  it  is  in  the  main  now  taken,  and  that,  other  con- 
ditions being  equal,  it  be  taken  from  the  south  or  east  side 
of  the  building.  If  this  last  suggestion  is  followed  in  future 
buildings,  a  surprising  amount  of  fuel  will  be  saved,  for  the 
air  on  the  south  side  of  a  building  is  generally  several  de- 
grees warmer  in  winter  than  that  on  the  north  side. 

'Registers  in  the  Floors 

It  is  helpful  to  have  some  form  of  register  in  halls,  both 
for  heating  the  halls  and  for  warming  the  feet  and  drying 
the  clothing  of  the  children.  But  it  is  a  mistake  to  make 
these  in  the  floor,  for  mud  and  dirt  will  fall  from  the  chil- 
dren's shoes,  and,  after  drying,  will  be  carried  upward 
by  the  currents  of  warm  air  and  scattered  in  the  rooms. 
A  better  method  of  placing  the  registers  is  to  open  them 
along  the  front  side  of  benches  fastened  to  the  walls.  They 
can  then  be  used  for  warming  the  feet  and  drying  the 
clothes  of  the  pupils,  without  introducing  dust  and  dirt  into 
them. 


The  School  Plant  329 

TOILETS   AND   URINALS 

The  form  of  toilets  most  in  use  is  that  with  the  automatic 
discharge  of  a  common  tank  for  a  number  of  seats.  Gen- 
erally these  seats  are  placed  back  to  back  across  the  toilet 
room,  and,  as  already  stated  (page  327),  are  very  poorly 
ventilated. 

Without  going  into  the  details  of  describing  these  toilets, 
there  are  certain  specific  recommendations  which  I  wish  to 
make  for  future  buildings,  and  for  refitting  some  of  the 
buildings  now  in  use : 

1.  Those  basement  rooms  selected  for  the  toilets  should 
command  abundance  of  light,  and,  if  possible,  abundance 
of  direct  sunshine.     The  buildings  should  be  planned  with 
this  requirement  in  mind. 

2.  The  toilet  stalls  and  urinals  should  be  set  in  single 
rows  around  the  walls  and  not  in  double  rows  across  the 
room.    This  method  will  make  the  supervision  a  great  deal 
easier,  render  the  room  much  lighter,  much  easier  to  keep 
clean,  and  discourage  a  vast  amount  of  carelessness.    This 
method,  however,  under  certain  conditions,  requires  slightly 
larger  rooms,  and  more  appropriate  glazing. 

3.  The  height  of  the  walls  of  the  toilet  stalls  need  not  be 
over  5  feet.    The  height  of  most  of  those  in  use  is  7  feet  or 
more.    This  is  not  only  a  useless  expense,  but  it  is  a  harm- 
ful expense.    Stalls  of  this  height  obstruct  the  light,  render 
ventilation  more  difficult,  and  are  very  much  harder  for 
the  janitor  to  keep  clean. 

4.  All  stalls  should  be  provided  with  a  short  door,  not 
over  3  feet  high,  set  about  10  inches  above  the  floor,  and 
so  hinged  that  it  will  swing  in  when  the  stall  is  not  in  use. 
This  will  afford  privacy,  without  keeping  the  stalls  closed 
when  not  in  use,  and  will  greatly  facilitate  inspection  and 
sanitation. 

5.  Some  of  the  flush  tanks  in  use  are  too  large  and  do 
not  flush  often  enough  to  keep  the  receiving  troughs  clean. 


330  The  Portland  Survey 

Only  sufficient  water  to  sweep  them  clean  should  be  dis- 
charged at  one  time.  Some  of  the  largest  tanks  could  be 
safely  reduced,  if  at  the  same  time  they  were  set  to  discharge 
oftener.  This  change  would  require  no  more  water  and 
would  keep  the  rooms  more  sanitary.  In  Germany,  where 
this  type  of  toilets  is  frequently  used,  the  flushing  is  often 
regulated  by  clock-work,  so  that  the  flushings  are  more  fre- 
quent during  intermissions  than  at  other  times. 

6.  The  urinal  troughs  in  use  are  bad,  and  this  system 
should  not  be  installed  in  any  future  buildings.     The  best 
now  on  the  market  for  schools  are  ventilated  downward,  and 
have  the  sides  and  backs  made  of  hammered  or  "  carrara  " 
glass.      Glass   does  not   absorb   the   urine,   is   easily  kept 
clean,  and  will  wear  indefinitely.    The  metal  partitions  now 
in  use  cannot  be  kept  from  corroding  and  accumulating 
solid  material,   which  soon  becomes  offensively   odorous. 
Much  relief  could  be  secured  by  cutting  off  the  lower  parts 
of  these  metal  sides. 

7.  At  least  two  sizes  of  seats  should  be  set  in  each  toilet 
room  of  future  buildings,  so  that  both  the  smaller  and  the 
larger  children  may  be  decently  provided  for.     In  most  of 
the  toilets  in  the  present  buildings  the  little  people  are  com- 
pelled to  use  seats  too  high  for  them.     The  different  sizes 
should  be  segregated,  for  reasons  not  necessary  to  state. 

8.  In  the  buildings  now  supplied  with  urinal  troughs 
some  benches  should  be  supplied   for  the  small  boys  to 
stand  on,  for  in  many  of  the  buildings  they  are  set  too  high 
for  the  smaller  boys. 

9.  In   future  buildings  adequate   provisions   should  be 
made  to  ventilate  all  seats  and  urinals.     In  the  older  types 
of  toilet  fixtures,  largely  used  in  the  Portland  schools,  direct 
and  complete  ventilation  is  impossible  because  the  pipes 
are  too  small  and  often  very  long,  and  dependence  is  placed 
entirely  on  having  the  heat  from  the  furnace  chimney  create 
a  draft  in  the  outlet  adjoining.     If  these  ventilation  flues 


The  School  Plant  331 

for  the  toilets  could  be  heated  directly,  or  if  an  exhaust  fan 
were  installed  in  them  just  above  the  intake  of  the  ducts 
from  the  toilets,  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  toilets  would 
be  greatly  improved. 

10.  Some  schools  are  oversupplied  with  seats  and  uri- 
nals, while  others  have  not  enough.     I  found  in  the  Hoi- 
man  School  that  the  number  supplied  was  totally  inadequate. 
This  condition  should  be  remedied  immediately.     It  is  im- 
possible to  calculate  with  exactness  just  how  many  toilet 
fixtures  are  needed  for  a  given  number  of  pupils,  because 
the  age  of  the  pupils  is  a  large  element  in  the  demand. 
Besides,  where  many  children  go  home  for  their  luncheon, 
another  variation  in  the  demand  is  introduced.     Likewise, 
fewer  are  needed  when  the  programs  are  so  arranged  that 
the  classes  are  not  all  dismissed  for  recess  at  the  same  time. 
But  approximately  one  seat  for  15  girls  and  one  for  25 
boys  will  not  miss  the  requirement  far.     The  number  of 
urinals  for  the  boys  should  be  greater,  say  one  for  20  boys. 
These  figures,  as  indicated  above,  are  not  applicable  in  all 
cases,  but  will  serve  as  a  helpful  rule  for  general  guidance. 

11.  The  ventilated  and  automatic  washout  seats  (those 
in  which  the  seat  lid  springs  back  and  flushes  the  bowl  as 
soon  as  the  child  rises)  are  the  best.     However,  these  need 
frequent  adjustment  to  make  sure  of  flushing.     I  found  a 
number  of  this  type  out  of  adjustment,  and  unflushed  after 
use.    The  principals  should  inspect  all  toilets  frequently  and 
report  immediately  any  disarrangement. 

12.  In  some  of  our  schools  trouble  from  the  spread  of 
venereal  diseases  has  been  met  with,  and  for  this  reason  the 
open-front  type  of  toilet  seat  should  be  used  in  all  future 
construction. 

It  is  but  fair  to  report  that  while  many  of  the  toilet 
rooms  are  improperly  lighted,  supplied  with  the  older  types 
of  fixtures,  badly  set,  and  improperly  ventilated,  the  jani- 


33  2  The  Portland  Survey 

tors  for  the  most  part  are  keeping  them  as  clean  and  sani- 
tary as  conditions  will  permit. 


BATHS 

Aside  from  the  high  school  building,  I  found  little  or  no 
attempt  to  supply  baths  in  the  school  buildings  of  Portland. 
I  wish  to  recommend  that,  especially  in  those  schools  util- 
ized by  the  children  dwelling  in  the  more  congested  districts 
of  the  city  —  such,  for  example,  as  the  Chapman,  Couch, 
and  Failing  schools  —  provision  be  made  for  shower  baths, 
and  that  the  children  be  offered  the  opportunity  and  the 
time  to  bathe  at  least  once  a  week.  This  will  do  many  of 
them  more  real  good  than  the  same  amount  of  time  spent 
in  any  other  way,  and  it  will  be  of  great  educational  value 
to  both  pupils  and  parents.  It  would  not  be  an  expensive 
undertaking  to  install  shower  baths  in  many  of  the  large 
basements  already  provided.  School  baths  are  no  longer 
in  the  experimental  stage. 

CLEANING  DEVICES 

Vacuum  Cleaners 

Schoolroom  dust  is  not  only  disagreeable,  but  dangerous, 
and  as  rapidly  as  possible  vacuum  cleaners  should  be  in- 
stalled in  all  buildings.  Some  tested  form  of  central  vacuum 
suction  should  be  employed,  so  that  the  dust  can  either  be 
discharged  through  water  or  carried  off  through  a  high 
chimney.  Vacuum  cleaners,  however,  will  not  prove  ac- 
ceptable or  satisfactory  unless  the  pipes  are  properly  placed 
and  a  strong,  regular  suction  is  produced.  I  wish  to  rec- 
ommend, in  as  forceful  a  manner  as  possible,  that  a  suction 
pipe  be  installed  near  the  floor  line  in  the  middle  of  one 
end  of  each  classroom,  preferably  the  end  where  the 
teacher's  desk  is  located,  so  as  to  make  it  unnecessary  to 
use  a  long,  heavy  hose,  and  also  to  make  it  easier  for  the 


The  School  Plant  333 

janitor  to  move  along  the  aisles  between  the  desks.  The 
cost  of  installation  will  be  somewhat  greater  with  this 
method,  but  by  reason  of  reduction  of  friction  in  the  short 
hose  the  effectiveness  will  be  much  increased  and  the  labor 
of  the  janitor  greatly  reduced.  The  main  expense  of  a 
vacuum  cleaner  is  the  running  expense,  and  it  is  good  econ- 
omy to  spend  more  to  save  much.  Besides,  the  work  will 
be  better  done.  The  older  method  of  locating  the  suction 
pipes  in  the  halls  has  proved  entirely  unsatisfactory  and 
measurably  ineffective.  In  most  of  the  Portland  buildings 
having  vacuum-cleaner  appliances,  there  are  entirely  too 
few  hose  attachments. 

I  noticed  that  in  some  of  the  buildings  the  janitors  had 
fitted  one  or  more  of  the  suction  pipes  with  devices  to  free 
the  chalk  erasers  of  dust.  This  is  to  be  commended,  and 
such  janitors  deserve  recognition  for  this  kind  of  service. 

Dust  Cloths 

The  use  of  feather  dusters  in  school  buildings  should 
be  prohibited.  They  serve  only  to  stir  up  the  dust,  and 
thereby  make  the  schoolrooms  more  unhealthful.  Dust 
cloths  should  be  used  instead.  The  janitors  should  be  fur- 
nished with  an  abundance  of  some  form  of  "  dustless  dust 
cloths  "  and  "  dustless  wall  mops,"  and  should  be  required 
to  use  them. 

DRINKING   FOUNTAINS 

Practically  all  the  buildings  are  supplied  with  drinking 
fountains,  most  of  which  are  satisfactory.  Some  are  in- 
sanitary by  reason  of  the  fact  that  the  stream  does  not  rise 
high  enough  above  the  cup  to  prevent  the  children's  lips 
from  touching  the  cup.  Those  being  installed  by  the  depart- 
ment mechanics  are  very  good,  but  in  some  buildings  need 
adjustment  to  insure  an  equally  strong  flow  from  all  the 
cups.  Some  are  too  hard  to  press;  others  shoot  a  large 
stream  on  slight  pressure. 


334  The  Portland  Survey 


SLATES 

To  find  slates  still  in  use  in  the  schools  of  Portland  was 
wholly  unexpected.  There  was  a  time  when  slates  were 
a  necessity,  but  that  time  has  long  since  passed.  The  cost 
of  paper  and  lead  pencils  is  now  so  small  that  most  cities  in- 
clude them  in  the  regular  list  of  supplies  and  furnish  them 
to  all  the  children  of  the  elementary  grades  free.  Slates  are 
at  best  noisy,  dirty,  insanitary,  and,  at  the  present  time, 
wholly  unjustifiable.  Besides,  better  teaching  can  be  done 
with  the  use  of  paper  and  lead  pencil  or  pen,  for  the  use 
of  paper  for  written  work  of  all  kinds  puts  a  premium  upon 
neatness  and  carefulness  which  slates  cannot  command.  I 
have  no  hesitation,  therefore,  in  the  interest  of  cleanliness 
and  sanitation,  as  well  as  in  the  interest  of  better  teaching, 
in  recommending  that  the  use  of  slates  in  the  schools  be 
abandoned  immediately.  The  Board  of  School  Directors 
ought  to  furnish  an  ample  supply  of  paper,  lead  pencils, 
pens,  and  ink,  for  all  the  elementary  schools,  without  cost 
to  the  children.1 

JANITOR   SERVICE 

The  janitor  of  a  modern  school  building  is,  next  to  the 
principal,  perhaps  the  most  important  officer  in  the  school. 
The  time  has  passed  when  anyone  who  is  sufficiently  strong 
to  sweep  and  build  fires  should  be  considered  capable  of 
being  a  good  janitor.  With  the  advent  of  modern  systems 
of  heating,  ventilation,  sweeping,  humidification,  disinfec- 
tion, and  general  oversight  of  buildings,  an  intelligent  and 
trained  man  is  needed.  Unless  a  janitor  understands  thor- 
oughly the  theory  and  construction  of  thermostats,  the  use 
of  fans,  the  best  method  of  sweeping  and  dusting,  and  gen- 
eral sanitation,  he  cannot  render  efficient  service,  however 
willing  he  may  be.  A  modern  janitor  needs  specific  train- 
ing, not  only  in  the  tricks  of  his  trade,  but  in  the  theoreti- 
cal and  practical  understanding  of  all  these  things. 

1  See  also  Chapter  VIII,  pages  160  to  162. 


The  School  Plant  335 


A  Janitors'  School 

I  wish  to  recommend,  therefore,  that  the  Superintendent 
of  Properties  be  given  charge  of  the  school  janitors,  and 
that  he  be  instructed  to  take  immediate  steps  to  organize 
a  sort  of  janitor  school,  where  those  who  are  already  in  the 
work,  and  those  who  are  making  applications  for  position 
for  such  service,  may  be  carefully  instructed  in  the  duties 
of  this  very  important  work.  The  following  brief  sugges- 
tions regarding  the  establishment  of  such  training  courses 
may  be  of  some  help : 

1.  Regular  meetings  of  janitors  should  be  held  at  least 
once  a  month,  at  designated  school  buildings,  and  a  regu- 
lar program  for  their  instruction  should  be  outlined. 

2.  This  course  of  instruction  should  consist  of:  (a)  Lec- 
tures by  the  Superintendent  and  Medical  Inspector  on  such 
subjects  as  the  following:  the  danger  of  dust;  the  selection 
and  placing  of  school  desks;   the  care  of  blackboards;   the 
disinfection  of  toilets  and  schoolrooms;    the  general  man- 
agement of  basements ;  the  care  of  the  health  of  a  janitor ; 
the  proper  temperature  of  a  classroom,      (b)    Technical 
instruction  by  the  school  engineer  or  department  mechanic 
on  the  following  subjects :    how  to  build  fires  and  stoke 
economically ;  the  theory  and  supervision  of  thermostats ;  the 
theory  and  management  of  the  various  systems  of  ventila- 
tion ;  plumbing  fixtures ;   sweeping  compounds  and  how  to 
make  them ;   oiling  floors ;   management  of  fans ;   the  dis- 
posal of  ashes  and  cinders;    the  management  of  vacuum 
cleaners;    sweeping  and  dusting;    protection  against  fires, 
etc.     (c)  "  Tricks  of  the  trade,"  set  forth  and  illustrated 
by  the  most  efficient  janitors  in  the  service,     (d)  Lectures 
by  selected  principals  on :  fire  drills ;  the  care  of  school  prop- 
erty ;  the  general  management  of  boys ;  the  moral  influence 
of  janitors;   opportunities  of  a  janitor;    the  care  of  play- 
grounds, etc.    (e)  Discussions  of  the  latest  and  best  infor- 


336  The  Portland  Survey 

mation  relating  to  the  work  of  janitors,  gathered  from  mag- 
azines and  books. 

A  good  supply  of  books,  articles,  and  other  helps  should 
be  furnished  by  the  Board  of  School  Directors. 

The  above  suggestions  embody  only  a  few  of  the  topics 
which  might  be  outlined.  But  with  some  such  plan  as  this 
put  into  operation,  not  only  much  expense  could  be  saved, 
but  a  much  higher  degree  of  efficiency  in  the  janitor  force 
could  be  secured.  Provision  for  such  training  would  also 
give  the  Board  of  School  Directors  the  opportunity  to  de- 
mand professional  preparation  for  their  work  of  all  appli- 
cants for  janitorial  service.  In  a  word,  it  would  introduce 
a  system  of  selecting  the  fittest  and  would  take  the  office 
out  of  the  field  of  politics  and  personal  pull.1 

In  addition  I  wish  to  say  that  an  intelligent,  well-trained 
janitor  should  get  better  pay  than  one  who,  other  things 
being  equal,  has  nothing  to  commend  him  but  ordinary  in- 
telligence and  physical  strength.  One  element  entering  into 
the  selection  of  a  janitor  should  always  be  that  of  moral 
character  and  ability  to  understand  children  and  manage 
them  acceptably.  Those  janitors  who  serve  most  helpfully 
should  be  remunerated  accordingly. 

MISCELLANEOUS   RECOMMENDATIONS 

I.  The  children  of  the  Ladd  School  should  be  protected 
in  the  use  of  the  park  and  the  street  next  the  building  for 
playgrounds.  The  police  should  be  asked  to  keep  all  auto- 
mobiles and  wagons  off  this  street  while  the  children  are 
at  play  during  intermissions.  This  will  hinder  public  rights 
very  little,  because  the  street  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  park 
can  be  used  at  such  times  with  little  or  no  inconvenience, 
and  the  children  will  then  be  protected.  During  my  visit 
to  this  school  many  children  were  endangered  by  rapidly 
moving  automobiles.  Children  have  rights,  as  well  as 
adults. 

1  See  also  Chapter  XI,  page  278. 


The  School  Plant  337 

2.  If  a  roller-skating  track  of  12  or  15  feet  in  width 
were  constructed  of  concrete  around  the  two  parts  of  the 
playground  at  the  new  Failing  School,  and  at  least  one  part 
of  the  playground  of  the  Irvington  and  the  Clinton  Kelly 
schools,   it  would  bring  a  great  joy  and  service  to  the 
children  of   these   neighborhoods,   not  only  during  inter- 
missions, but  after  school  hours  and  during  vacations.    The 
Failing  School  grounds  in  particular  could  then  be  used 
much  more  helpfully  as  a  recreation   center   for  all  the 
young  people  of  the  neighborhood.     The  same  suggestion 
could  be  profitably  applied  to  the  playgrounds  of  a  number 
of  other  schools. 

3.  I  should  like  to  suggest  that  advantage  be  taken  of  the 
deep  ravine  between  the  Creston  School  building  and  the 
new  playground  to  construct  an  open-air  or  Greek  amphi- 
theater.    Comparatively  little  expense  would  be  incurred, 
and  one  of  the  most  useful  and  beautiful  structures  in  the 
whole  city  would  result.     It  would  serve  for  many  school 
purposes  and  social-center  activities,  and  would  certainly 
be  in  demand  by  the  city  as  a  whole. 

4.  The   Lownsdale   and   Couch   schools   are   unfit   for 
school  use  and  should  be  abandoned  as  soon  as  possible. 

5.  I  commend  the  form  of  coved  baseboards  used  in 
the  Fern  wood  School  and  recommend  that  this  form  of  con- 
struction be  introduced  in  all  future  buildings. 

6.  Something  should  be  done  to  deaden  the  halls  in  the 
Jefferson  High  School  building.    They  are  very  noisy.    This 
building  was  badly  constructed  and  will  eventually  require 
expensive  repairs. 

7.  The  Fulton  Park  site  is  so  near  to  two  car  lines  that 
the  Board  of  School  Directors  should  exchange  it,  if  pos- 
sible, for  a  site  farther  removed  from  the  growing  disturb- 
ance and   danger  that  will   surely   come  with   increasing 
traffic. 


338  The  Portland  Survey 


ADVISORY    EDUCATIONAL    COMMITTEE   ON    BUILDINGS 

Finally,  I  should  like  to  suggest  that  a  small  committee, 
say  of  five,  composed  of  two  principals,  a  teacher  from  the 
primary  grades,  one  from  the  upper  grades,  and  one  from 
the  high  schools,  be  appointed  to  advise  with  the  Superin- 
tendent and  the  architect  when  plans  for  new  buildings  are 
under  consideration.  If  those  especially  qualified  for  the 
work  of  this  committee  are  selected,  and  are  given  oppor- 
tunity to  make  some  special  study  of  school  hygiene,  they 
can  render  valuable  service  to  the  city. 


CHAPTER   XIV1 
THE    SYSTEM    OF    HEALTH    SUPERVISION 

PREFATORY  NOTE  :  This  report  is  based  on  an  investigation  of  one  week's  du- 
ration. All  the  information  available  was  secured  from  the  chief  medical  officer, 
three  of  the  four  school  medical  examiners,  the  school  nurse,  the  director  of 
physical  training,  and  the  Superintendent  of  Schools.  This  was  supplemented 
by  conversations  with  nine  school  principals  and  at  least  forty-four  teachers, 
all  of  whom  expressed  themselves  as  frankly  and  fully  as  time  would  permit. 

The  writer  was  present  during  the  routine  medical  examination  of  about 
400  children,  in  three  different  types  of  schools,  and  saw,  altogether,  about 
2,400  children  in  classrooms,  in  physical  training  drills,  and  in  exit  or  entrance 
marches. 

Seven  recitations  in  hygiene  were  observed  in  whole  or  in  part,  besides  four 
physical  training  exercises.  The  schools  visited  were  selected  as  representative 
of  various  social  and  hygienic  conditions.  It  is  believed  that  no  amount  of 
further  investigation  would  have  altered  materially  the  substance  of  the  report 
which  follows. 

LEWIS  M.  TERMAN. 

TWO   TYPES   OF   SCHOOL   HEALTH   SERVICE 

IN  the  schools  of  the  United  States  there  are  two  main 
types  of  school  medical  service.     In  order  to  make  clear 
the  significance  of  certain  criticisms  and  recommendations 
to  be  made  in  this  report,  it  is  necessary  to  describe  these 
briefly  and  to  set  forth  their  respective  aims  and  procedures.2 

i.  The  first  is  "medical  inspection"  carried  on  chiefly 
for  the  detection  and  control  of  transmissible  diseases.  This 
is  the  form  in  which  school  medical  work  everywhere  had 

1  Chapter  XIV  was  written  by  Professor  L.  M.  Tennan.  —  EDITOR. 

2  It  is  not  possible  to  set  forth  in  this  report  the  facts  and  arguments  of  a 
general  nature  on  which  the  criticisms  and  recommendations  of  this  chapter 
are  based.    These  can  be  obtained  from  the  following  three  books  by  the  writer: 
The  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child,  Health  Work  in  the  Schools  (written  with 
the  assistance  of  Dr.  E.  B.  Hoag),  and  The  Teacher's  Health.  —  DIRECTOR. 

339 


340  The  Portland  Survey 

its  beginning.  In  nearly  all  cases,  it  was  merely  an  exten- 
sion of  the  functions  of  the  local  board  of  health.  The  cost 
is  very  small,  averaging  in  the  United  States  about  13  cents 
per  year  for  each  child.  Medical  inspection  of  this  type 
has  unquestionably  proved  its  value.  It  is  the  primitive 
type  of  school  medical  service,  however,  and  has  been  super- 
seded in  most  of  the  larger  and  many  of  the  smaller  cities 
of  the  country  by  the  type  of  work  about  to  be  described. 

2.  The  second  kind  of  school  medical  service  goes  beyond 
mere  "  medical  inspection "  and  has  for  its  purpose  the 
"  health  supervision  "  of  schools  in  a  broad  sense.  It  aims 
not  only  to  control  contagious  diseases,  but  also  to  discover 
every  form  of  physical  defectiveness  which  may  exist  among 
the  pupils ;  to  bring  about,  by  means  of  an  efficient  follow-up 
service,  the  correction  of  as  many  of  these  as  possible ;  and 
to  supervise  the  activities  of  the  school  to  the  end  of  pre- 
venting conditions  of  ill  health.  Defects  of  teeth,  throat, 
eyes,  nose,  cervical  glands,  ears,  nutrition,  heart,  lungs, 
nervous  system,  and  skeletal  development  are  carefully 
sought  out. 

This  type  of  health  supervision  includes  in  its  scope  phys- 
ical training  and  playground  activities,  medical  control  of 
athletics,  physical  examinations  of  candidates  for  teaching 
positions,  supervision  of  the  school  program  from  the  point 
of  view  of  hygiene,  the  segregation  of  defective  children 
in  special  schools  (open-air  schools,  schools  for  the  deaf, 
blind,  crippled,  feeble-minded,  etc.),  home  education  in  mat- 
ters of  hygiene,  expert  advice  in  regard  to  schoolhouse  con- 
struction and  sanitation,  besides  many  other  lines  of  work 
more  or  less  preventive  in  nature. 

Health  supervision  of  the  type  just  outlined  is  usually 
under  the  direction  of  a  physician  of  special  training  and 
equipment,  who  gives  his  whole  time  to  the  work.  The  an- 
nual cost  of  such  a  system  is,  at  least,  50  cents  per  pupil, 
but  measured  by  results  it  is  by  far  the  cheapest  form  of 
school  medical  service. 


System  of  Health  Supervision  341 

MAIN    FEATURES    OF    THE   PORTLAND   SYSTEM 

With  minor  exceptions,  Portland's  school  medical  service 
belongs  distinctly  to  the  first  type.  It  is  carried  on  by  the 
board  of  health.  Four  half-time  school  medical  examiners 
are  employed  (three  hours  daily  for  five  days  a  week),  a 
nurse  for  full  time,  and  a  dentist  for  one  day  each  week 
(Saturdays).  The  total  annual  expense  is  about  $3,250,  or 
a  little  over  10  cents  per  child.  The  emphasis  is  obviously 
on  the  control  of  contagious  diseases  and  the  eradication  of 
parasites,  and  upon  securing  treatment  for  the  worst  cases 
of  adenoids,  tonsils,  and  decayed  teeth. 

Notwithstanding  the  restricted  scope  of  the  work,  as  or- 
ganized, it  is  performing  a  service  which  is  worth  many 
times  its  cost.  At  the  same  time,  it  should  be  regarded 
merely  as  a  beginning,  by  no  means  as  a  final  accomplish- 
ment. 

NATURE   OF   THE   MEDICAL   EXAMINATIONS   GIVEN 

Under  the  present  system  these  can  be  nothing  more  than 
superficial  inspections.  Each  half-time  medical  examiner 
has  from  5,000  to  7,000  children  under  his  charge  and  is 
expected  to  make  the  entire  rounds  of  his  district  in  from 
one  to  two  months.  This  demands  the  inspection  of  chil- 
dren at  the  rate  of  about  200  to  400  for  each  half -day.1  A 
thorough  examination  once  a  year,  or  even  once  in  two 
years,  would  result  in  more  good  than  a  large  number  of 
superficial  inspections. 

The  method  employed  in  the  examinations  is  to  have  the 
pupils  of  a  room  march  in  single  file  by  the  physician,  who 
stops  each  child  long  enough  to  permit  inspection  of  the 
hands,  arms,  and  hair.  Then  the  physician  gives  a  hasty 
glance  into  the  mouth  and  throat,  and  the  pupil  passes  on. 
Cases  of  itch  and  pediculosis,  also  extreme  cases  of  ob- 

1  Adequate  examinations  cannot  be  made  more  rapidly  than  20  to  40  per 
half -day. 


342  The  Portland  Survey 

structed  nasal  breathing  and  dental  decay,  are  listed  by  the 
teacher  at  the  examiner's  request  and  reported  to  the  parent 
on  a  card  provided  for  the  purpose. 

No  examination  is  made  for  defects  of  heart,  lungs,  nutri- 
tion, general  development,  hearing,  vision,  etc.,  or  for  spinal 
curvature,  flat  foot,  or  other  orthopedic  defects.1  Teeth  are 
not  reported  unless  their  condition  is  rather  bad,  and  the 
milder  cases  of  obstructed  nasal  breathing  seem  to  escape 
attention  sometimes. 

In  one  room  where  I  was  present  during  the  inspection 
no  child  was  reported  (at  least  on  this  particular  occasion) 
for  defective  teeth.  After  the  departure  of  the  medical 
examiner  I  looked  into  the  mouth  of  each  child  in  this 
room  and  did  not  find  a  reasonably  clean  set  of  teeth,  or  a 
single  child  free  from  dental  decay.  Most  children  had 
from  three  to  six  teeth  badly  decayed,  one  of  them  fourteen. 
Perhaps  children  in  this  room  had  been  reported  for  defec- 
tive teeth  at  previous  inspections,  but  if  so,  little  or  nothing 
had  ever  come  of  it.  On  this  occasion,  however,  the  in- 
spector reported  several  children  for  "  nits,"  several  for 
dirty  neck  or  hands,  and  one  for  tonsils.  The  room  in  ques- 
tion was  in  one  of  the  poorest  sections  of  the  city.  The  ex- 
aminer himself  stated  that  not  far  from  75  per  cent,  of  the 
children  in  this  school  have  adenoids  or  diseased  tonsils. 
Anaemia  was  evident  on  every  hand. 

There  is  no  intent  to  criticise  the  medical  examiners.  Par- 
asites naturally  get  first  attention,  for  a  school  so  afflicted  is 
not  a  livable  place.  As  regards  neglect  of  the  less  obvious 
defects,  nothing  else  could  be  expected.  Where  there  is  time 
neither  in  examinations  nor  in  follow-up  work  for  attention 
to  more  than  a  small  proportion  of  the  defects,  ordinary 
human  sympathy  insures  that  the  severe  or  advanced  defects 
will  be  looked  after  first.  This  is  only  natural.  It  means, 

1  It  should  be  added,  however,  that  sometimes  children  suspected  by  the 
teachers  of  having  visual  or  auditory  defect  are  given  a  special  examination. 
Obviously,  only  a  negligible  proportion  of  the  enrollment  can  receive  such 
examinations. 


System  of  Health  Supervision  343 

however,  that  the  efforts  are  largely  misspent.  Defects 
should  be  remedied  at  the  earliest  possible  moment.  It  is 
unwise  to  neglect  adenoids  until  the  child's  face  has  become 
deformed,  his  body  stunted,  and  his  mind  dulled.  Teeth 
that  have  been  neglected  until  eight  or  ten  are  decayed  pre- 
sent a  hopeless  problem.  The  same  is  largely  true  of  other 
kinds  of  defectiveness.  Failure  to  make  annual  hearing 
tests  means  that  many  curable  cases  of  partial  deafness  will 
go  untreated.  If  annual  tests  of  vision  are  not  made,  the 
eyes  and  nervous  system  of  many  children  will  be  wrecked. 
It  is  evident  that  routine  inspection  like  that  just  de- 
scribed does  not  come  under  the  head  of  "  expert "  work. 
It  can  be  done  just  as  efficiently  by  specially  trained  nurses 
as  by  the  average  physician,  and  is  so  done  in  several  of 
the  best  school  systems  of  the  country.  Much  of  it  could 
be  done  by  the  teachers  themselves  after  suitable  instruction. 


DEFECTS   OF   THE   SYSTEM 

Results  Secured 

It  is  taken  for  granted  that  the  management  of  contagious 
diseases  is  satisfactory.  The  methods  employed  do  not 
differ  materially  from  those  in  a  majority  of  American 
cities. 

As  regards  common  physical  defects,  the  case  is  different. 
As  already  explained,  this  is  in  part  due  to  the  lack  of  op- 
portunity for  a  complete  physical  examination.  Equally 
fatal  is  the  fact  that  only  one  school  nurse  is  employed  for 
nearly  30,000  children.  Ideally,  there  should  be  a  nurse 
for  every  2,000  children.  Each  of  two  principals  stated 
that  the  entire  time  of  one  nurse  should  be  available  for  her 
own  school.  Two  other  principals  said  that  they  could  use 
half  the  time  of  one  nurse. 

So  slow  is  the  average  parent  to  act  upon  the  examiner's 
recommendation  that  thousands  of  home  visits  need  to  be 
made  each  year  in  a  city  the  size  of  Portland.  Medical  in- 


344  The  Portland  Survey 

spection,  without  adequate  follow-up  service,  amounts  to 
little  more  than  inspection.  At  present,  the  follow-up  work 
devolves  largely  upon  the  teachers,  who  evidently  have  ac- 
complished considerable,  though  certainly  only  a  fraction 
of  what  an  adequate  supply  of  nurses  would  accomplish. 

In  a  large  proportion  of  cases  the  matter  ends  with  the 
notification  of  parents.  It  is  impossible  to  state  the  actual 
or  even  approximate  percentage  of  children  receiving  the 
medical  attention  recommended,  for  the  reason  that  no 
attempt  is  made  to  secure  records.  Urged  to  venture  a 
guess  on  this  point,  one  of  the  medical  examiners  estimated 
that  probably  one  fourth  to  one  half  of  the  parents  re- 
sponded; another  medical  examiner  estimated  one  half  to 
two  thirds;  while  principals  and  teachers  gave  estimates 
varying  from  one  tenth  to  three  fourths.  The  proportion 
must  vary  greatly  in  the  different  schools  according  to  the 
prevailing  social  and  economic  conditions  of  the  parents, 
but  in  no  case  have  we  the  facts  necessary  to  enable  us  to 
measure  the  efficiency  of  the  system  in  terms  of  results. 

One  index  of  the  efficiency  of  a  system  of  health  super- 
vision is  the  proportion  of  children  wearing  glasses.  Sta- 
tistics of  visual  defects  collected  from  many  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  school  children  in  diverse  parts  of  the  world 
prove  that  the  per  cent,  of  school  children  with  subnormal 
vision  is  much  the  same  everywhere.  This  always  falls 
between  15  and  30  per  cent.  The  proportion  who  really 
need  glasses,  however,  is  less  than  this,  ordinarily  not  far 
from  10  to  12  per  cent.  Of  about  2,400  children  whom  I 
saw  in  the  Portland  schools,  only  a  fraction  over  2  per  cent, 
wore  glasses,  most  of  these  in  the  upper  grades.  On  the 
most  liberal  estimate,  not  over  one  fourth  of  the  Portland 
children  who  should  be  wearing  glasses  are  doing  so. 

In  almost  every  class  there  are  several  cases  of  extreme 
dental  neglect  and  from  one  to  three  or  four  cases  of  neg- 
lected nasal  obstruction.  Adenoids  and  enlarged  tonsils 
seem  unusually  numerous  in  the  Portland  schools.  One  of 
the  examiners  estimated  the  incidence  as  high  as  50  per 


System  of  Health  Supervision  345 

cent,  for  the  entire  city.  Judging  from  200  or  more  throats 
into  which  I  looked,  this  estimate  appears  to  me  as  none  too 
high. 

Records  and  Reports 

Records  and  reports  are  altogether  unsatisfactory.  There 
are  no  records  on  what  should  be  regarded  as  the  main  point, 
viz.,  the  action  taken  by  parents  after  notification  of  defects. 
The  medical  examiners  report  daily  to  the  central  office  the 
number  of  pupils  examined,  numbers  of  defective  pupils 
found,  number  of  cases  of  pediculosis,  measles,  scarlet  fever, 
chicken  pox,  etc.,  also  number  listed  for  adenoids,  tonsils, 
etc.  These  reports  are  summarized  monthly  in  the  reports 
of  the  health  officer. 

TABLE  XXm' 

HEALTH  OFFICERS'  MONTHLY  REPORTS 

Cases                                                           Sept.,  1911  March,  1913 

No.  of  pupils  examined 16,882  19,729 

No.  of  defective  pupils  found 225  i)396 

No.  of  cases  of  pediculosis  found 126  261 

No.  of  cases  of  scarlet  fever  found o  o 

No.  of  cases  of  diphtheria  found o  o 

No.  of  cases  of  chicken  pox  found      2  8 

No.  of  cases  of  measles  found o  o 

No.  of  pupils  vaccinated      . o  o 

Miscellaneous o  1,127 

It  will  be  noted  that  pediculosis,  measles,  chicken  pox, 
etc.,  are  reported  specifically,  while  obstructed  breathing, 
discharging  ears,  defective  eyes,  teeth,  etc.,  are  lumped  to- 
gether in  a  group  called  "  miscellaneous,"  as  though  they 
were  minor  matters.  This  illustrates  a  very  common  mis- 
placement of  emphasis.  Space  does  not  permit  us  to  point 
out  all  the  defects  of  the  record  system  in  use.  It  is  wholly 
bad. 

The  value  of  a  system  of  medical  inspection  depends  in- 
timately upon  its  bookkeeping  methods.  The  following  are 
some  of  the  important  considerations : 


346  The  Portland  Survey 

1.  There  should  be  an  individual  health  card  for  each 
pupil.    This  should  go  with  the  pupil  from  grade  to  grade. 
It  should  contain  the  complete  data  for  each  annual  medi- 
cal examination,  together  with  note  of  action  taken  upon 
recommendations.     This  card  should  be  a  complete  health 
history  of  the  child  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  his 
school  life.    It  should  be  kept  in  the  school  building  where 
the  child  attends,  and  a  copy  may  be  kept  in  the  central  office. 

In  the  registration  of  data  explicitness  should  be  the  rule. 
For  example,  the  record  of  a  defective  ear  should  show 
whether  it  is  a  case  of  ear  discharge  or  something  else.  The 
eyes  should  be  recorded  separately.  Squint  should  be  des- 
ignated specifically,  and  so  on  with  all  other  kinds  of  defects. 

2.  The  general  reports  (monthly,  annual,  etc.)  should 
also  be  explicit  and  should  conform  to  ordinary  statistical 
requirements.     For  example,  they  should  avoid  such  pro- 
cedures as  stating  the  number  of  defects  found  without  in- 
dicating the  number  of  children  furnishing  them,  or  giv- 
ing per  cent,  of  defects  without  indicating  what  the  per 
cent,  is  a  per  cent.  of.     To  illustrate:   the  Portland  exam- 
iners report  under  the  heading,  "  number  of  defective  pupils 
found,"  from  2  per  cent,  to  6  per  cent,  of  those  examined. 
But  there  is  nothing  to  tell  us  whether  these  are  new  cases 
of  defectiveness  not  found  before,  or  whether  they  are  largely 
made  up  of  old  cases,  reported  over  again  each  month. 

The  general  report  should  avoid  lumping  together  defects 
of  different  significance.  The  common  and  the  rare,  the 
primary  and  the  secondary,  curable  and  incurable,  chronic 
and  acute,  the  grave  and  the  unimportant,  should  not  be 
confused.  The  reports  should  be  so  planned  that  they  will 
throw  some  light  on  the  relation  of  the  various  kinds  of 
defects  to  each  other,  their  dependence  upon  age,  their  in- 
fluence upon  school  progress,  etc.  They  should  be  compre- 
hensible to  the  public.  They  should  show  how  many  cases 
were  cured,  improved,  by  what  agencies  cared  for,  etc. 

The  individual  health  card  should  combine  the  best  fea- 


System  of  Health  Supervision  347 

tures  of  the  Cleveland,  Philadelphia,  and  Meriden  (Con- 
necticut) cards.  The  nurse's  report  should  be  modeled  after 
that  used  in  Philadelphia. 


The  Field  for  School  Health  Activities  in  Portland 

That  the  scope  of  the  work  is  very  restricted  has  already 
been  emphasized.  To  give  a  better  idea  of  the  real  field 
for  the  activities  of  a  school  health  department,  it  may  be 
well  to  estimate  the  probable  amount  of  physical  defective- 
ness  among  the  30,000  school  children  of  Portland.  The 
following-  estimates  are  based  on  statistics  from  millions  of 
school  children  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States,  Can- 
ada, Europe,  Australia,  and  other  countries.  The  estimates 
given  are  minimum  figures,  and  hold,  we  may  be  certain, 
everywhere.  They  are  exceeded  even  in  such  good  resi- 
dence cities  as  Los  Angeles,  Pasadena,  Berkeley,  and 
Oakland. 

Of  Portland's  30,000  children  not  far  from 

10  per  cent.  (3,000)  are  poorly  nourished  or  anaemic; 

50  per  cent.  (15,000)  have  seriously  defective  teeth ; 

15  per  cent.  (4,500)  have  or  have  had  obstructed 
nasal  breathing; 

10  per  cent.  (3,000)  have  enlarged  cervical  glands, 
many  of  which  are  tuberculous ; 

15  per  cent.  (15,000)  have  been  infected  at  least  once 
with  tuberculosis,  one  fifth  of  whom  (or  one  tenth  of 
all)  will  probably  die  of  the  disease; 

10  per  cent.  (3,000)  have  vision  defective  enough  to 
require  correction  by  glasses ; 

5  per  cent.  (1,500)  have  seriously  defective  hearing, 
one  fifth  of  whom  (i  per  cent,  of  all)  are  at  least  nine 
tenths  deaf; 

5  per  cent.  (1,500)  have  spinal  curvature  or  some 
other  orthopedic  defect  likely  to  interfere  with  health; 

2  per  cent.  (600)  have  organic  heart  disease; 


348  The  Portland  Survey 

5  per  cent.  (1,500)  are  "  nervous  "  or  predisposed  to 
some  form  of  nervous  disorder; 

i  per  cent.  (360)  are  so  backward  mentally  that  their 
intelligence  will  never  go  beyond  that  which  is  normal 
for  the  twelve-year-old  child ; 

y2  per  cent,  of  the  boys  (150)  and  2  per  cent,  of  the 
girls  (600)  stutter  or  have  some  other  speech  defect; 

50  per  cent  (15,000)  do  not  use  a  toothbrush  with 
needed  regularity; 

90  per  cent.  (27,000)  do  not  know  how  to  use  a  tooth- 
brush properly; 

10  to  20  per  cent.  (3,000  to  6,000)  have  toothache 
frequently ; 

10  to  15  per  cent.  (3,000  to  4,500)  sleep  in  a  bedroom 
with  no  window  open; 

20  per  cent.  (6,000)  sleep  from  one  to  two  hours  less 
per  day  than  children  of  their  age  should  sleep; 

60  per  cent.  (18,000)  drink  one  or  more  cups  of  tea 
or  coffee  per  day ; 

50  to  75  per  cent.  (15,000  to  22,500)  have  no  fruit 
for  breakfast; 

10  to  15  per  cent.  (3,000  to  4,500)  are  constipated  to 
greater  or  less  degree,  etc. 

The  above  is  by  no  means  a  complete  list,  but  is  sufficient 
to  indicate  the  vast  field  of  health  conservation  which  a 
school  medical  service  like  that  of  Portland  is  hardly  able 
to  touch  upon.  To  deal  effectively  with  all  this  defective- 
ness  and  to  supervise  the  activities  of  the  school  so  that 
defects  will  less  often  develop  are  infinitely  more  important 
ends  than  the  eradication  of  parasites  and  the  control  of 
contagious  disease.  As  a  rule  not  over  3  per  cent,  of  the 
children  will  need  attention  in  any  one  year  for  contagious 
disease,  while  from  50  to  65  per  cent,  have  one  or  more 
forms  of  chronic  physical  defect.  The  two  lines  of  work 
are  important  therefore  in  the  ratio  of  about  I  to  20. 

A  special  line  of  work  which  ought  to  receive  serious 


System  of  Health  Supervision  349 

attention  in  Portland  is  the  prevalence  of  goiter  among  the 
school  children,  and  especially  among  the  girls.  This  con- 
dition calls  for  serious  study  and  investigation. 

ESSENTIAL    FEATURES    OF   A   DEPARTMENT    OF    HEALTH 
SUPERVISION   FOR  A   CITY   THE  SIZE  OF   PORTLAND 

Control  to  be  in  the  Hands  of  School  Authorities 

Control  should  be  vested  in  the  school  directors,  not  the 
board  of  health.  The  former  method  of  control  has  super- 
seded the  latter  in  more  than  three  fourths  of  American 
cities  and  is  rapidly  coming  to  be  a  standard  requirement. 

While  it  is  possible  for  the  work  to  be  effectively  carried 
on  by  a  board  of  health,  it  is  extremely  unlikely  that  it  will 
be.  The  board  of  health  lacks  the  educational  point  of 
view,  usually  makes  the  work  curative  rather  than  preven- 
tive, neglects  the  so-called  "  minor  "  forms  of  defectiveness, 
makes  the  school  service  a  side  issue  of  the  public-health 
work,  and  fails  to  secure  the  maximum  cooperation  from 
teachers  and  parents.  In  greater  or  less  degree  all  the 
above-named  faults  are  to  be  found  in  the  Portland  system. 
Change  of  control  must  be  the  first  step  in  any  real  advance 
in  the  school  medical  service  of  Portland.1 

The  Force  Needed,  and  the  Expense 

The  following  represents  the  minimum  requirements  for 
an  efficient  system  of  health  supervision  for  30,000  school 
children : 

One  chief  health  director,  full  time,  salary $3,500 

One  assistant  physician,  full  time  (or  two  for  half  time),  salary  .    .    .  2,200 

One  eye,  ear,  nose,  and  throat  specialist,  half  time,  salary i,5°o 

One  woman  physician  (chiefly  for  high  school  girls),  full  time,  salary.  2,000 

One  dentist,  full  time,  salary 2,000 

Eight  school  nurses,  full  time,  salary,  each  $800 6,400 

Equipment 400 

Total $18,000 

1  For  further  arguments  relating  to  control,  see  Gulick  and  Ayres:  Medical 
Inspection  of  Schools,  1913  edition,  Chapter  X. 


350  The  Portland  Survey 

As  the  city  grows,  the  force  would  need  to  be  increased 
in  proportion.  Two  nurses  and  one  half-time  physician 
should  be  added  for  each  6,000  increase  in  the  number 
of  children. 

The  expenditure  recommended  would  not  make  an  ideal 
system,  but  it  would  place  Portland  abreast  of  the  better- 
class  cities  of  its  size.1  The  importance  of  adequate  salaries 
deserves  special  emphasis.  Unless  they  are  placed  on  at 
least  as  good  a  basis  as  the  schedule  suggested  above,  it  will 
be  useless  to  expect  the  kind  of  service  needed.  Costs  are 
large  or  small  relative  to  other  costs.  The  system  recom- 
mended would  add  only  about  60  cents  per  year  to  the 
$44.25  now  expended  per  year  for  the  child's  education; 
or  for  eight  years  a  total  of  $4.80  in  addition  to  the  $354 
now  spent  for  instruction.  Compared  to  the  health  returns 
and  enhanced  efficiency  of  the  instruction  itself,  this  cost  is 
very  low.  Portland  is  expending  several  times  this  sum 
every  year  in  giving  instruction  a  second  or  third  time  to 
"  repeaters,"  whose  number  could  no  doubt  be  materially 
reduced  by  greater  attention  to  health  conditions. 

The  Chief  Health  Director 

Whatever  the  system,  its  efficiency  will  depend  more  upon 
the  equipment  of  the  physician  in  charge  than  upon  anything 
else.  The  usual  medical  training  does  not  offer  the  slightest 
guarantee  of  fitness  for  this  position,  the  requirements  of 
which  are  absolutely  different  from  those  necessary  for 
medical  practice.  Educational  hygiene  is  a  specialty  which 
few  physicians  have  cultivated.  A  physician  should  be  se- 
lected who  has  had  wide  experience  in  work  of  this  kind, 
and  he  should  be  given  a  free  hand  to  organize  the  depart- 
ment, within  the  limit  of  the  expenditures  allowed.  He 
should  be  a  man  of  great  tact,  for  it  is  necessary  to  win  the 
confidence  of  children,  teachers,  parents,  and  local  physi- 

1  Such  cities,  for  example,  as  Minneapolis,  Los  Angeles,  and  Milwaukee,  all 
of  which  have  health  departments  ranking  with  the  best  in  the  country. 


System  of  Health  Supervision  351 

cians.  He  should  be  a  good  speaker,  so  as  to  be  able  to  put 
the  department  in  the  right  light  before  the  public.  He 
must  be  able  to  manage  the  work  in  such  a  way  as  not  to 
arouse  unduly  the  opposition  of  religious  sects  or  preju- 
diced physicians,  and  he  must  secure  effective  cooperation 
with  local  hospitals,  dispensaries,  board  of  health,  philan- 
thropic agencies,  mothers'  clubs,  etc.  He  must  be  able  to 
train  teachers  in  effective  methods  of  observing  children 
and  to  help  them  in  the  teaching  of  hygiene. 

Offices,  Equipment,  etc. 

There  should  be  a  central  office  of  several  rooms,  viz.,  a 
general  reception  room,  a  private  office  for  the  director,  one 
examining  room,  a  small  medical  laboratory,  a  room  for  the 
psychologist,  and  a  dental  clinic.  There  should  also  be 
planned  for  each  new  school  building  a  small  room  to  be 
used  by  the  school  nurse,  physician,  or  psychologist.  These 
are  especially  necessary  in  the  poorer  parts  of  the  city.  The 
woman  physician  should  have  an  office  of  two  small  rooms 
in  each  high  school  attended  by  girls.  A  similar  office 
for  the  use  of  a  male  physician  should  be  maintained  in  each 
high  school  attended  by  boys. 

Children  who  need  a  more  thorough  examination  than 
would  be  possible  in  the  routine  examinations  could  be  taken 
to  the  central  office.  One  special  nurse  should  be  assigned 
to  this  office,  whose  duty  it  would  be  to  keep  the  records  and 
assist  the  physician  in  charge  of  office  examinations. 

Dental  Clinic 

The  arrangement  of  the  dental  clinic  is  excellent  as  far  as 
it  goes.  The  school  dentist,  who  is  employed  Saturdays 
only,  treats  from  40  to  70  children  per  month.  Usually 
from  one  half  to  one  third  of  the  treatments  are  for  extrac- 
tions. Emphasis,  however,  should  be  placed  more  on  pre- 
ventive work.  The  effort  to  patch  up  the  results  of  pro- 


352  The  Portland  Survey 

longed  neglect  is  more  or  less  inconsequential.  Portland 
should  have  at  least  one  full-time  dentist.  This  would  not 
be  enough,  but  it  would  make  a  good  beginning.  The  ex- 
ample of  Cambridge  (England)  and  West  Newton  (Massa- 
chusetts) should  be  followed  in  the  concentration  of  effort 
on  the  lower  grades.  This  guarantees  the  largest  amount 
of  prevention  for  the  expenditure  of  time  and  effort.  To 
concentrate  effort  upon  the  bad  conditions  of  upper  grades 
is  like  locking  the  barn  door  after  the  horse  has  been  stolen. 

Nowhere  else  are  preventive  measures  so  important. 
Dental  caries  is  predominantly  a  disease  of  childhood  and 
youth.  When  a  tooth  has  ached,  the  best  time  for  saving 
it  has  gone  by.  Statistics  in  hundreds  of  cities  prove  that 
always  from  60  to  95  per  cent,  of  the  children  have  one  or 
more  decaying  teeth,  and  that  the  average  number  per  child 
is  usually  about  three  or  four.  From  10  to  30  per  cent,  of 
the  children  of  almost  any  school  suffer  from  frequent 
toothache,  and  more  than  I  per  cent,  have  chronic  "  gum 
boils."  Impaction  and  other  dental  irregularities  are  com- 
mon. These  conditions  result  in  imperfect  mastication, 
nervousness,  general  toxaemia  from  the  absorption  of  pus, 
and  lowered  vitality  generally.  Diphtheria,  tuberculosis, 
etc.,  are  sometimes  traceable  to  decayed  teeth,  and  infection 
may  spread  from  them  to  the  throat  and  middle  ear.  Even 
moral  delinquency  sometimes  yields  to  dental  treatment. 

The  objection  sometimes  made  to  the  free  dental  clinic  in 
the  school  is  that  it  is  an  encroachment  on  the  field  of  the 
private  practitioner.  This  argument  has  no  weight  what- 
ever. A  large  proportion  of  parents  simply  cannot  afford 
to  employ  dentists  for  their  children.  The  real  question  is 
whether  this  work  shall  be  done  by  a  school  dentist,  or  not 
at  all.  In  all  probability  the  income  of  private  dentists 
would  be  affected  favorably  rather  than  unfavorably.  The 
child  who  has  throughout  his  school  life  experienced  the 
comforts  which  result  from  school  dentistry,  will  form  the 
"  dentist  habit "  and  patronize  the  private  dentist  the  rest 
of  his  life.  Besides,  disease  should  be  conceived  as  an  evil 


System  of  Health  Supervision  353 

to  be  eradicated  and  not  as  a  resource  to  be  conserved  for 
the  benefit  of  any  profession. 

The  argument  that  free  dental  treatment  destroys  paren- 
tal responsibility  is  not  borne  out  by  experience.  Parental 
responsibility  is  increased,  rather  than  diminished.  Any- 
way, our  duty  is  to  the  children  rather  than  to  the  parents. 
It  is  a  queer  ethics  which  would  demand  that  children's 
bodies  be  allowed  to  rot  as  a  moral  lesson  to  their  parents ! 


Medical  Clinic 

A  great  deal  of  medical  treatment  (just  how  much  the 
writer  was  not  able  to  learn)  has  been  provided  for  the  chil- 
dren of  indigent  parents  in  local  hospitals  and  dispensaries. 
This  is  an  excellent  arrangement  and  should  be  continued 
and  extended.  One  or  two  clinics  should  also  be  maintained 
by  the  school  directors,  in  connection  with  the  schools  in 
the  poorer  sections  of  the  city.  These  would  prove  a  great 
help  in  the  management  of  certain  minor  disorders,  the 
treatment  of  which  is  tedious  and  not  likely  to  be  adequately 
carried  out  without  some  such  arrangement.  Discharging 
ears  (which  ordinarily  are  found  in  about  i  per  cent,  of  the 
school  enrollment)  belong  in  this  category.  When  not  in 
use  by  a  physician,  the  medical  clinics  would  be  at  the  serv- 
ice of  the  school  nurse. 


The  Work  of  School  Nurses 

The  necessity  of  a  liberal  supply  of  school  nurses  has  al- 
ready been  suggested.  Without  an  adequate  follow-up  serv- 
ice only  a  small  fraction  of  notifications  sent  to  parents  will 
be  acted  on,  usually  not  more  than  5  to  30  per  cent.  School 
nurses  bring  the  proportion  up  to  85  or  90  per  cent.  The 
nurse  goes  into  the  home  and  by  tactful  presentation  of  the 
child's  case  effects  what  no  other  agency  could  accomplish. 
She  not  only  secures  action  in  the  case  at  hand,  but  she  also 


354  The  Portland  Survey 

becomes  a  permanent  advisory  influence  in  the  homes  where 
she  visits. 

It  is  just  as  effective  to  have  the  routine  inspections  for 
trachoma,  pediculosis,  skin  diseases,  etc.,  made  by  school 
nurses  as  by  physicians.  With  proper  assistance  and  direc- 
tion they  make  the  examinations  for  many  other  kinds  of 
defects  just  as  efficiently  as  doctors.  The  experience  of  sev- 
eral cities  demonstrates  that  it  is  far  better  to  have  a  small 
number  of  exceptionally  competent  doctors,  assisted  by  a 
good  supply  of  nurses,  than  to  have  a  large  number  of  doc- 
tors and  few  nurses.  It  is  also  more  economical.  Another 
advantage  of  school  nurses  is  that  they  arouse  less  pro- 
fessional jealousy  than  do  physicians. 

School  nurses  eradicate  parasites,  do  first-aid  work,  act 
in  an  advisory  capacity  to  the  older  girls  in  intimate  mat- 
ters of  personal  hygiene,  and  exert  a  most  beneficent  influ- 
ence in  the  Americanization  of  the  poorer  foreign  popula- 
tion. It  is  a  mistake,  however,  to  suppose  that  nurses  are 
only  needed  in  schools  attended  by  the  poorer  classes.  Port- 
land could  well  afford  to  supply  ten  or  twelve,  and  ought 
to  have  eight  at  least. 

The  Teachers'  Part  in  Health  Supervision 

Any  scheme  of  health  supervision  which  does  not  suc- 
ceed in  enlisting  the  interest  and  assistance  of  teachers  is 
doomed  to  failure  or  indifferent  success.  The  more  promi- 
nent the  preventive  aspect  of  the  work  the  greater  is  this 
necessity.  This  is  an  additional  reason  why  the  control 
should  be  vested  in  the  board  of  education. 

The  teacher  is  the  only  person  constantly  present  with  the 
pupils.  She  has  more  opportunity  than  anyone  else  to  de- 
tect the  first  symptoms  of  contagious  disease,  signs  of  nerv- 
ousness, indications  of  eye-strain,  ear  discharge,  deafness, 
etc.  With  the  help  of  the  medical  director,  teachers  develop 
no  mean  degree  of  skill  in  detecting  symptoms  of  common 
physical  defects;  without  such  assistance  and  instruction, 


System  of  Health  Supervision  355 

even  good  teachers  are  blind  to  all  but  the  most  striking  dis- 
orders. It  is  the  latter  condition  which  seems  to  prevail  in 
Portland.  Many  teachers  were  asked  whether  they  had  in 
their  room  any  cases  of  partial  deafness,  defective  eyes  not 
fitted  with  glasses,  spinal  curvature,  nervousness,  malnutri- 
tion, badly  neglected  teeth,  untreated  adenoids,  etc.  Rarely 
was  an  affirmative  answer  received,  although,  without  the 
slightest  doubt,  some  of  almost  every  one  of  the  above- 
named  defects  were  present  in  every  room.  I  observed  at  a 
glance  extreme  cases  of  myopia,  scoliosis,  round  shoulders, 
anaemia,  dental  caries,  etc.,  in  classes  where  the  teacher  said 
she  knew  of  no  such  defects.  The  teacher  had  not  been 
taught  to  observe,  and  was  resting  in  false  security  on  the 
assumption  that  the  school  doctors  were  looking  after  the 
child's  body  sufficiently. 

Teachers  are  the  proper  ones  to  make  the  vision  and  hear- 
ing tests.  Some  of  the  best-known  oculists  in  the  United 
States,  including  Dr.  Frank  Allport  of  Northwestern  Uni- 
versity, Dr.  Myles  Standish  of  Harvard  University,  and  many 
others,  have  taken  this  stand,  after  comparison  of  the  tests 
made  by  teachers  and  ordinary  physicians.  The  teacher 
can  find  the  defective  visual  or  auditory  acuity  not  only  as 
easily  as  can  the  physician  who  is  not  a  specialist,  but  even 
better,  for  she  has  more  opportunity  to  supplement  her  test 
with  observation  for  symptoms. 

OPEN-AIR   SCHOOLS 

Portland  is  one  of  the  few  cities  of  its  size  in  the  United 
States  without  an  open-air  school.  The  need  for  open-air 
schools,  however,  is  much  the  same  in  this  city  as  in  any 
other,  and  the  equable,  temperate  climate  is  especially  suit- 
able to  them.  An  examination  of  the  health  reports  for  the 
six  months  ending  March,  1913,  shows  that  approximately 
9  per  cent,  of  the  deaths  of  Portland  were  caused  by  tuber- 
culosis. The  real  proportion  is  no  doubt  somewhat  greater 
than  this,  as  experts  in  vital  statistics  tell  us  that  everywhere 


356  The  Portland  Survey 

deaths  are  credited  to  other  diseases  which  are  indirectly 
due  to  tuberculosis. 

The  point  to  emphasize  is  that  approximately  3,000  chil- 
dren now  attending  school  in  Portland  (10  per  cent,  of  all) 
will  die  of  this  disease,  unless  something  is  done  to  save 
them.  For  the  most  part  these  are  the  children  whom  an 
examination  would  show  to  be  somewhat  below  par  in 
growth  and  nutrition.  There  is  no  way  to  reach  such  chil- 
dren and  minister  to  their  physical  needs  except  through 
the  school.  At  present,  the  schools  of  Portland  are  doing 
nothing  for  them.  The  medical  examiners  practically  never 
report  anaemia  or  poor  development,  their  attention  being 
chiefly  occupied  with  parasites,  infectious  disease,  etc.  They 
are  not  blamed  for  this,  for  under  the  present  system  it 
would  do  no  good  to  report  ansemia  and  malnutrition. 
Nothing  would  come  of  it. 

The  economic  aspect  of  this  problem  is  challenging. 
Portland  is  turning  out  annually  at  least  300  children  from 
its  schools  who  are  doomed  to  die  of  tuberculosis,  many 
of  them  in  early  life.  Figuring  on  the  basis  of  Irving 
Fisher's  low  estimate  of  the  average  economic  value  to 
society  of  a  human  life  ($1,700),  the  total  annual  loss 
from  these  deaths  will  amount  to  more  than  a  half-mil- 
lion dollars.  As  the  city's  population  increases,  the  loss 
will  be  proportionately  greater.  The  school  instruction  of 
these  300  children  for  nine  years  will  have  cost,  at  the  pres- 
ent average  cost,  $119,475.  In  other  words,  Portland  is 
spending  about  $119,475  annually  in  the  education  of  chil- 
dren who  will  die  of  tuberculosis;  and  the  total  loss  from 
these  deaths  will  amount  to  more  than  one  half  million 
dollars  per  year.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  an  adequate 
system  of  health  supervision,  including  open-air  schools, 
would  prevent  a  part  of  this  loss.1 

In  this  connection,  certain  other  facts  regarding  tubercu- 
losis deserve  emphasis: 

1  See  also  Chapter  XIII,  pages  320  to  321. 


System  of  Health  Supervision  357 

1.  Tuberculosis  is  at  present  as  much  an  educational  and 
social  problem  as  a  medical  one.    Relatively  few  cases  come 
under  the  notice  of  a  physician  until  the  most  favorable 
time  for  a  cure  has  passed  by. 

2.  Statistics  prove  that   recent  decreases   in  mortality 
from  tuberculosis  hold  little  or  not  at  all  for  children.    The 
disease  kills  about  as  many  children  of  school  age  today 
as  it  did  fifty  years  ago.    From  the  ages  10  to  15,  tubercu- 
losis is  responsible  for  many  more  deaths  than  scarlet  fever, 
diphtheria,  measles,  and  whooping  cough  combined. 

3.  It  is  well  established  that  a  large  majority  of  children 
contract  tuberculosis  before  the  end  of  the  common-school 
period.     Most  of  these,  to  be  sure,  recover  promptly  and 
without  suspicious  symptoms.    A  large  minority,  however, 
retain  the  infection  in  latent  form  and  often,  after  the  lapse 
of  years,  succumb  to  it.     In  dealing  with  them  the  school 
should  do  everything  in  its  power  to  bulwark  the  body 
against  the  manifest  form  of  the  disease.     It  is  foolish  to 
begin  expensive  operations  with  the  third  and  last  act  of 
the  drama. 

4.  No  system  of  ventilation  has  yet  been  devised  which 
will  take  the  place  of  open  air  for  weakly,  anaemic  children. 
The  lower  temperature,  normal  humidity,  and  perceptible 
air  currents  of  the  open-air  class  cannot  with  safety  be  re- 
placed by  Ihe  hot,  kiln-dried,  and  stagnant  air  of  the  aver- 
age schoolroom.     The  conditions  present  even  under  the 
so-called  "  ideal  "  system  of  mechanical  ventilation  too  often 
tend  to  cause  anaemia,  headaches,   nervousness,   and  un- 
healthy conditions  of  the  nose  and  throat. 

Careful  physical  examinations  of  pupils  attending  open- 
air  schools  in  New  York,  Chicago,  Boston,  Providence, 
Cleveland,  Oakland,  and  many  other  cities  prove  that 
weakly,  ill-nourished  children  in  these  schools  invariably 
show  remarkable  gains  in  weight,  strength,  and  quality  of 
blood.  Under  the  regimen  of  the  open-air  school,  with  its 
shorter  study  program,  increased  physical  activity,  and 


358  The  Portland  Survey 

warm  lunch,  followed  by  one  or  two  hours  of  quiet  or  sleep, 
the  corpuscle-count  quickly  mounts  from  3  or  31/2  million 
to  4  or  4^2  million  per  cubic  millimeter,  and  the  hemoglobin 
from  65  or  70  per  cent,  to  80  or  85  per  cent,  (not  far 
below  normal).  Corresponding  improvement  occurs  in 
weight,  strength,  appetite,  mental  alertness,  and  freedom 
from  colds. 

The  mental  results  of  the  open-air  school  are  also  note- 
worthy. Children  who  are  listless,  apathetic,  and  retarded 
often  become  interested  and  attentive.  Incorrigible  children 
develop  self  control  and  helpfulness.  The  spirit  of  the  open- 
air  school  is  different.  Freedom,  initiative,  and  cooperation 
take  the  place  of  routine  and  restraint.  Sickly  children  in 
the  open-air  school  make  as  satisfactory  school  progress  on 
a  study  program  of  three  hours  per  day  as  healthy  children 
ordinarily  make  on  a  five-hour  program.  Grades,  attend- 
ance, and  percentage  of  promotions  are  usually  better  than 
in  the  ordinary  class.  Instruction  given  in  the  open  air  has 
marked  advantages.  The  child  is  brought  into  closer  con- 
tact with  the  world  of  animate  and  inanimate  things  and 
is  more  likely  to  relate  the  school  instruction  to  his  own 
experiences. 

There  is  no  reason  for  limiting  the  advantages  of  open- 
air  schools  to  children  who  are  sickly.  Schools  which  ac- 
complish so  much  for  the  latter  could  not  fail  to  be  of  bene- 
fit to  normal  children.  Portland  could  well  afford  to  follow 
the  example  of  Boston,  which  is  placing  about  5  per  cent, 
of  its  school  children  in  open-air  schools,  or  certain  cities  in 
California,  which  are  going  even  farther  in  this  direction. 
At  least  one  or  two  open-air  classrooms  should  be  included 
in  each  school  building  to  be  erected  in  the  future.  These 
should  be  planned  and  located  with  the  assistance  of  an  ex- 
pert. Meanwhile,  inexpensive  portable  school  buildings  for 
open-air  instruction  can  be  utilized.1 

1  See  Leonard  P.  Ayres:  Open-Air  Schools,  1910,  Doubleday,  Page  and  Co. 


System  of  Health  Supervision  359 


SCHOOL    FEEDING 

While  Portland  is  more  fortunate  than  some  cities  as 
regards  the  average  economic  and  educational  status  of  her 
people,  like  all  cities  she  has  her  exceptional  districts.  A 
few  of  the  schools  undoubtedly  have  many  ill-nourished 
children.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  children  are  starving. 
Malnutrition  may  result  from  many  causes,  including,  be- 
sides insufficient  food,  injudicious  selection  of  food,  im- 
proper cooking,  lack  of  supervision  of  the  child's  eating 
habits,  etc.  Defective  teeth,  obstructed  nasal  breathing, 
nervousness,  low  powers  of  digestion  and  assimilation,  loss 
of  sleep,  lack  of  opportunity  for  play,  overcrowding,  bad 
air,  and  general  parental  neglect  are  perhaps  even  more 
common  causes.  Where  sufficiently  thorough  examinations 
have  been  made,  it  has  been  found  that  even  among  the  best 
social  classes  from  5  to  15  per  cent,  of  the  children  are  ill 
nourished.  No  other  factor  is  as  fundamental  for  health  as 
nutrition.  Its  impairment  is  the  first  step  toward  tubercu- 
losis and  many  other  diseases. 

To  improve  the  nutrition  of  school  children  all  the  factors 
above  named  must  receive  attention.  Besides  furnishing 
the  child  a  school  environment  as  nearly  ideal  as  possible, 
homes  must  be  helped  by  visiting  nurses,  the  use  of  health 
leaflets  to  parents,  etc. 

Finally,  meals  ought  to  be  served  in  the  school  of  certain 
districts,  and  supplied  gratis  to  children  who  cannot  afford 
to  pay.  In  such  cases,  meal  tickets  should  always  be  dis- 
bursed in  a  way  which  will  avoid  bringing  the  indigency  of 
a  child  to  the  knowledge  of  his  fellows.  School  meals  are 
one  of  the  most  successful  and  commendable  of  modern 
educational  innovations.  All  the  theoretical  arguments 
against  them  have  been  demolished  by  the  test  of  results. 
The  school  meal  contributes  not  only  to  the  child's  health, 
but  to  his  education  as  well.  Cleanliness,  order,  politeness, 
habits  of  mastication,  principles  of  dietetics,  cooking,  etc., 


360  The  Portland  Survey 

can  nowhere  be  so  effectively  taught  as  in  connection  with 
the  school  meal.1 


THE    HEALTH    OF   THE   TEACHING  CORPS 

The  health  of  school  children  is  intimately  bound  up  with 
that  of  teachers.  Statistical  investigations  indicate  that 
not  infrequently  teachers  suffer  from  nervous  disorders  and 
from  diseases  of  the  throat,  lungs,  and  digestive  system. 
Some  are  handicapped  by  deafness  or  defective  vision. 
Where  statistics  have  been  collected,  from  I  to  3  per  cent, 
have  been  found  tuberculous.  While  facts  on  these  points 
are  not  available  for  Portland,  there  is  no  reason  to  believe 
that  the  conditions  here  are  different  from  those  in  other 
average  cities. 

The  prevalence  of  ill  health  among  teachers  is  usually 
traced  in  part  to  the  absence  of  any  serious  physical  exami- 
nation of  candidates  for  educational  service,  and  in  part  to 
the  teacher's  strenuous  work,  indoor  life,  and  neglect  of  per- 
sonal hygiene.  Considerations  of  economy,  as  well  as  jus- 
tice to  both  children  and  teachers,  demand  that  all  these 
matters  be  given  attention. 

Candidates  for  teaching  positions  should  be  required  to 
pass  a  thorough  medical  examination,  given  by  the  school 
physicians.  This  should  include  examination  for  defects 
of  lungs,  heart,  vision,  hearing,  nervous  system,  nutrition, 
etc.  Such  examinations  are  required  in  Los  Angeles  and 
many  other  cities.  Experience  shows  the  mere  formal  re- 
quirement of  a  certificate  of  good  health,  signed  by  "  a 
reputable  physician,"  is  absolutely  worthless.  Anyone  who 
has  not  already  been  turned  over  to  the  undertaker  can 
secure  such  a  statement. 

The  health  of  the  teacher  in  service  should  also  receive 
systematic  consideration.  If  teachers  who  show  signs  of 
incipient  disease  were  required  to  take  an  examination,  seri- 

1  See  Louise  Bryant:  School  Feeding,  1913,  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company. 


System  of  Health  Supervision  361 

ous  disorders  could  often  be  discovered  and  arrested.    This 
would  safeguard  the  health  of  teachers  and  pupils  as  well. 

The  environment  and  conditions  under  which  teachers 
work  should  be  made  as  favorable  as  circumstances  will  per- 
mit. Teaching,  at  best,  is  not  a  particularly  healthful  occu- 
pation, or  one  free  from  severe  demands  upon  physical  and 
mental  endurance.  Investigations  show  that  it  is  during  the 
early  years  of  service  that  the  health  is  most  likely  to  suffer 
impairment;  hence  sympathetic  and  helpful  oversight  of 
the  young  teacher  is  important.  By  all  means,  retiring  al- 
lowances should  be  provided  for  teachers  who  have  worn 
themselves  out  in  the  public  service. 

HYGIENE   TEACHING 

The  amount  of  time  devoted  to  the  teaching  of  hygiene 
seems  to  be  from  30  to  50  minutes  per  week,  more  often 
about  45.  This  allotment  holds  for  all  the  school  grades 
and,  though  not  large,  would  appear  to  be  sufficient  if  prop- 
erly utilized.  Seven  recitations  in  hygiene  were  observed. 
The  teaching  ranged  from  excellent  to  exceedingly  poor, 
but  on  the  whole  was  perhaps  not  below  the  average  for 
most  cities. 

The  teaching  of  hygiene  would  no  doubt  be  better  if  the 
texts  were  better.  These  belong  to  a  type  now  being  rapidly 
superseded.  It  should  hardly  be  necessary  to  urge  that  the 
real  purpose  of  hygiene  teaching  is  not  to  store  the  child's 
mind  with  the  dry  facts  of  anatomy  and  physiology,  but 
rather  to  instil  habits  of  hygienic  living.  Not  all  the  teach- 
ers with  whom  I  talked  seemed  to  appreciate  fully  this 
distinction. 

A  better  series  of  textbooks  should  be  adopted,  and  what- 
ever selection  is  made,  supplementary  hygiene  readers  should 
be  placed  in  every  school.  A  few  of  the  best  of  these  make 
fascinating  reading  for  both  pupils  and  teacher. 

The  teachers'  need  of  a  broadened  horizon  deserves  em- 
phasis. Most  teachers  have  themselves  had  but  little  instruc- 


362  The  Portland  Survey 

tion  in  hygiene  and  need  to  have  their  own  scope  of  knowl- 
edge enlarged.  This  can  be  brought  about  by  well-selected 
supplementary  books  and  by  lectures  and  criticisms  given 
from  time  to  time  by  someone  of  wide  knowledge  on  the 
subject.  The  right  kind  of  school  medical  officer  finds  here 
one  of  his  most  important  functions. 

It  devolves  upon  the  teacher  to  mold  the  health  habits  of 
her  pupils ;  to  cultivate  habits  of  posture  which  will  prevent 
spinal  curvature  and  myopia ;  to  encourage  habits  of  activ- 
ity and  love  of  play,  which  will  help  to  counterbalance  the 
effects  of  sedentary  life  and  ward  off  disease;  to  impart  the 
knowledge  of  hygiene  and  ideals  of  correct  living  which  will 
act  throughout  life  as  the  cheapest  form  of  health  insurance. 


PHYSICAL   TRAINING   AND    PLAYGROUND   INSTRUCTION 

The  writer  has  never  seen  better  physical  training  exer- 
cises than  those  in  the  Portland  schools.  They  were  lively, 
varied,  and  conducted  with  such  a  spirit  of  good  humor  and 
vim  as  to  make  them  interesting  and  pleasing  to  the  pupils 
as  well  as  healthful. 

The  play  life  of  Portland's  school  children,  however,  as 
far  as  observations  were  possible,  seemed  by  no  means  all  it 
might  be.  Several  of  the  schools  have  no  playgrounds,  and 
in  several  instances  where  the  grounds  were  commodious 
the  children  did  not  play,  but  engaged  in  pulling,  shoving, 
yelling,  and  other  forms  of  boisterous  rowdyism.  Too  often 
the  older  girls  seemed  to  find  nothing  to  do  but  sit  around 
on  the  grass  or  parade  with  locked  arms. 

It  should  not  be  necessary  to  argue  for  the  educative  or 
the  moral  and  hygienic  value  of  the  right  kind  of  play.  No- 
where else  will  the  child  learn  such  wholesome  lessons  in 
fair  play,  social  cooperation,  and  self-control.  Correct  judg- 
ment brings  its  quick  reward ;  error  its  certain  penalty. 
Play  life  is  real  life  for  the  child,  as  the  school  too  often  is 
not. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  school  to  teach  children  to  play  and  to 


System  of  Health  Supervision  363 

encourage  them  to  play.  Every  teacher  should  be  a  play 
instructor.  Certain  ones  who  show  special  adaptability  for 
this  kind  of  work  should  be  given  special  training  for  it. 
Organized  courses  of  instruction  are  necessary  for  this 
purpose. 

It  is  recommended  that  the  scope  of  the  department  of 
physical  training  be  enlarged  to  include  supervision  of  the 
playground  work.  The  director  of  physical  training  has 
already  accomplished  a  great  deal  in  this  line,  but  he  should 
be  given  more  assistants  for  the  routine  physical  training 
exercises,  so  that  he  may  be  responsible  for  the  organization 
and  supervision  of  playground  instruction  on  a  broad  scale. 
He  should  be  given  a  free  hand  and  held  responsible  merely 
for  results.  Teachers  who  have  some  special  training  should 
be  employed  to  act  as  playground  instructors  for  an  hour  or 
two  after  the  dismissal  of  school  and  on  Saturdays  during 
the  school  year.  Play  is  just  as  necessary  during  the  school 
year  as  in  vacation,  for  the  sedentary  life  which  the  child 
leads  from  9  A.  M.  to  3.30  p.  M.  needs  to  be  counterbalanced. 

As  already  recommended,  the  services  of  two  physicians 
should  be  available  in  the  high  schools,  one  for  boys  and  one 
for  girls.  One  of  their  important  duties  would  be  to  give 
physical  examinations  to  determine  fitness  for  various  kinds 
of  physical  training  and  athletic  exercise.  In  the  absence  of 
such  examinations  the  more  strenuous  forms  of  the  exer- 
cises in  current  use  are  sure  to  cause  physical  injury  in  a 
certain  proportion  of  cases,  possibly  5  per  cent. 

The  physical  training  department  would  also  do  well  to 
consider  the  advisability  of  establishing,  as  soon  as  possible, 
special  orthopedic  exercises  for  the  treatment  of  scoliosis, 
round  shoulders,  flat  foot,  etc.  For  this  purpose  children 
will  need  to  be  classified  according  to  type  of  defect. 

The  exercises,  which  should  be  given  for  40  to  50  minutes 
about  three  times  a  week,  could  take  place  after  the  close  of 
the  afternoon  session.  In  the  conduct  of  such  work,  the 
cooperation  of  an  orthopedic  surgeon  is  very  desirable. 


364  The  Portland  Survey 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  INSTRUCTION  I    DAILY  SCHOOL  PROGRAMS 

The  daily  programs  inspected  were  not  always  arranged 
to  accord  with  the  results  of  psychological  and  physiologi- 
cal studies  of  fatigue.  No  home  study  should  be  required 
below  the  sixth  or  seventh  grade,  and  it  should  be  strictly 
limited  and  carefully  supervised  whenever  made  use  of. 
Textbooks  should  be  chosen  which  do  not  violate  the  stand- 
ard requirements  in  the  hygiene  of  reading.  The  motor 
aspects  of  the  learning  process  should  receive  more  atten- 
tion. The  work  of  the  school  should  be  directed  in  the  light 
of  such  studies  as  have  been  made  relating  to  the  hygiene 
of  the  learning  process,  the  hygiene  of  discipline,  the  influ- 
ence of  holidays  and  vacations  on  the  child's  ability  to  do 
mental  work,  the  hygienic  aspects  of  classification,  promo- 
tion, etc.  In  various  matters  of  this  kind  the  advice  of  a 
psychologist  should  be  available. 

SPECIAL   SCHOOLS   AND   CLASSES    NEEDED 

School  for  the  Deaf 

The  one  class  now  conducted  for  the  deaf  is  not  sufficient 
for  any  school  system  of  30,000  children.  Among  this 
number  there  are  sure  to  be  from  100  to  150  children  too 
deaf  to  profit  greatly  from  the  regular  instruction. 

A  very  important  desideratum  in  the  education  of  deaf 
children  is  their  proper  classification.  Three  classes  are  to 
be  carefully  distinguished  and  separately  taught  by  methods 
suitable  to  each.  These  are  (i)  the  deaf;  (2)  the  "semi- 
deaf  "  (those  with  a  usable  remnant  of  hearing)  ;  and  (3) 
the  dull  or  feeble-minded  deaf.  The  rule  should  be  to  place 
the  child  in  the  highest  type  of  school  (that  is,  the  type  most 
nearly  resembling  the  ordinary  school)  for  which  he  is 
fitted.1 

1  See  article  by  Dr.  Love  in  Proceedings  of  the  Second  International  Congress 
of  School  Hygiene,  pages  828  to  839,  and  that  by  Dr.  Yearsley  in  International 
Magazine  of  School  Hygiene,  Volume  VII,  pages  4  to  13. 


System  of  Health  Supervision  365 

In  the  education  of  deaf  and  semi-deaf  children  it  is  ex- 
tremely important  to  get  them  in  the  special  class  at  an 
early  age  and  to  keep  them  to  the  age  of  17  or  1 8,  if  possible. 


Special  Schools  for  Blind  or  Crippled  Children 

A  special  class  for  each  of  these  groups  is  probably  needed 
in  Portland.  While  many  otherwise  progressive  cities  are 
slow  to  recognize  the  responsibility  of  society  in  the  edu- 
cation of  such  unfortunates,  the  responsibility  nevertheless 
is  real.  Every  child  has  a  right  to  the  kind  of  education 
which  will  best  fit  it  for  the  duties  of  citizenship.  The  more 
serious  the  child's  handicap,  the  deeper  is  this  obligation. 


Special  Classes  for  Stammerers 

There  are  probably  200  school  children  in  Portland  who 
should  attend  classes  of  this  sort.  The  one  now  conducted 
is  only  a  beginning.  Statistics  show  that  not  over  half  the 
children  who  stutter  recover  spontaneously,  but  that  80  per 
cent,  can  be  cured  or  greatly  improved  in  a  few  months  by 
appropriate  instruction  in  special  classes.  Complete  segre- 
gation is  not  necessary.  Experience  elsewhere  proves  that  a 
special  class,  meeting  for  about  40  minutes  each  day,  will 
suffice  in  a  large  majority  of  cases. 

The  stuttering  child  presents  a  tragedy  to  which  many 
parents  and  teachers  are  strangely  blind.  Such  a  child  is 
likely  to  become  retarded.  He  is  subjected  to  jest  and  ridi- 
cule and  is  likely  to  develop  traits  of  abnormal  timidity.  The 
vocational  outlook  for  stutterers  is  altogether  unpromising. 
They  are  barred,  practically,  from  law,  medicine,  the  min- 
istry, teaching,  and  many  lines  of  business.1 

1  For  information  on  the  treatment  of  stuttering  in  European  schools,  see 
articles  by  George  Rouma  in  International  Magazine  of  School  Hygiene,  III, 
1907,  pages  116  to  171. 


366  The  Portland  Survey 

Schools  for  Backward  Children 

Portland  has  more  than  its  full  quota  of  retarded  chil- 
dren. The  statistics  given  in  Tables  XVI  and  XVII,  in 
Chapter  IX  (pages  186  and  189),  show  the  large  number 
of  children  in  the  schools  who  are  too  old  for  their  grades. 
In  discussing  these  tables  Superintendent  Spaulding  pointed 
out  the  importance  of  careful  attention  to  the  needs  of  these 
children.  This  was  again  emphasized  in  Chapter  XI  by 
Superintendent  Francis  (page  264). 

To  become  retarded  means,  in  many  cases,  to  repeat  work. 
Work  that  is  repeated  becomes  stale.  Repeaters  lose  not 
only  interest,  but  self-confidence  as  well.  The  child  who 
has  failed  of  two  or  three  promotions  has  usually  formed 
the  habit  of  failure.  Portland  is  every  year  turning  out 
many  children  who  do  not  know  what  it  means  to  succeed. 

To  prevent  this  waste  (Portland  is  spending  now  $44.25 
a  year  giving  instruction  to  repeaters),  it  will  be  necessary 
to  undertake  systematic  study  of  the  children  who  are  re- 
tarded. Among  the  important  factors  are  dullness,  feeble- 
mindedness, physical  defects,  peculiar  interests  or  abnormal 
moral  traits,  etc.  Improved  methods  of  promotion,  instruc- 
tion, etc.,  can  be  looked  to  for  the  prevention  of  minor 
degrees  of  retardation,  but  not  the  extreme  ones. 

For  the  right  understanding  and  handling  of  the  latter, 
the  services  of  a  psychologist  will  be  necessary.1  Assisting 
the  psychologist,  there  should  be  one  full-time  field  worker, 
whose  function  it  would  be  to  gather  information  regarding 
the  home  life,  previous  history,  and  heredity  of  backward 
or  otherwise  exceptional  children.  This  measure,  supple- 
mented by  the  work  of  the  school  health  department,  would 
be  able  to  accomplish  wonders  in  bringing  up  to  standard 
a  certain  number  who  are  retarded  because  misunderstood 
or  because  physically  handicapped. 

The   more   extreme   cases   of   backwardness   cannot   be 

1  See  Arthur  Holmes:  The  Conservation  of  the  Child,  1912,  J.  B.  Lippincott 
Company. 


System  of  Health  Supervision  367 

brought  up  to  grade,  but  they  can  be  segregated,  classified 
by  psychological  methods,  and  given  a  kind  of  instruction 
from  which  they  can  derive  immensely  more  profit  than  they 
can  from  the  regular  class.  About  2  per  cent,  of  school 
children  are  so  backward  mentally  that  they  can  never  mas- 
ter the  abstractions  of  upper  grammar  grade  studies.  To 
keep  them  forever  mumbling  over  subject-matter  which 
they  cannot  master  is  both  farcical  and  cruel.  They  clog  the 
educational  machinery.  They  consume  a  disproportionate 
amount  of  the  teacher's  energy.  They  pull  down  the  stand- 
ard of  achievement  for  other  children.  They  become  dis- 
heartened and  dejected,  or  else  case-hardened  and  apathetic. 

Most  of  this  class  would  be  capable  of  learning  a  trade  if 
they  had  an  opportunity,  and  in  no  other  way  can  the  school 
help  them  so  much  as  by  affording  them  the  kind  of  educa- 
tion which  will  make  them  self-supporting.  They  must  be 
saved  from  becoming  industrial  drags  after  they  leave 
school,  for  vocational  unfitness  is  the  open  door  to  vice, 
pauperism,  and  crime.1 

It  is  recommended  that  all  children  retarded  two  years  or 
more  be  given  a  careful  examination,  both  medical  and 
psychological,  with  a  view  to  the  formation  of  special  classes 
for  those  who  are  in  need  of  such  instruction.  The  special 
class  should  never  enroll  more  than  15  pupils  per  teacher. 
The  purpose  should  be  to  fit  the  instruction  to  the  needs  of 
the  individual  child,  with  little  regard  to  the  regular  course 
of  study  for  normal  children.  A  shop  is  a  necessary  ad- 
junct. The  special  teachers  should  be  paid  the  maximum 
salary,  and  should  have  had  specific  training  for  this  kind 
of  work.  Personality  is  an  important  element  in  their 
equipment.2 

The  children  just  described  are  mentally  inferior,  but  not 
feeble-minded  in  the  ordinary  sense.  They  will  be  able 
to  "  float "  in  some  sort  of  fashion  in  the  social  and  indus- 

1  See  also  Chapters  IX  and  XI. 

2  See  book  by  Lightner  Witmer  and  others:    The  Special  Class,  1912,  the 
Psychological  Clinic  Press. 


368  The  Portland  Survey 

trial  world.  They  are  along  the  border  line  between  mental 
deficiency  and  normality.  Many  of  them  will  never  develop 
intelligence  or  responsibility  beyond  that  of  an  eleven  or 
twelve-year-old  child.  Educationally  neglected,  as  is  too 
often  the  case,  they  drift  easily  into  pauperism  and  crime. 
Psychologists  are  demonstrating  that  from  20  to  40  per 
cent,  of  our  prison  inmates,  and  from  30  to  50  per  cent,  of 
our  white-slave  victims,  belong  to  this  class  of  individuals 
whom  we  may  designate  as  "border  liners."  The  annual 
cost  of  vice  and  crime  in  Portland  is  greater  than  the  city's 
total  annual  expenditure  for  education.  The  criminals  of 
tomorrow  are  school  children  today.  To  stop  the  stream 
of  criminality  and  inefficiency  we  must  study  its  genesis  in 
childhood. 

Classes  for  the  Feeble-minded 

Another  group  of  children,  perhaps  one  half  of  one  per 
cent,  of  all,  come  under  the  designation  "  feeble-minded." 
The  proportion  is  much  larger  than  it  is  usually  given,  for 
the  reason  that  physicians  (who  are  seldom  acquainted  with 
the  psychological  methods  used  in  such  cases)  usually  over- 
look the  higher  grades  of  defect.  These  should  be  rigidly 
confined  in  state  institutions  or  colonies  throughout  the 
reproductive  period.  If  allowed  to  produce  offspring,  the 
result  is  almost  certain  to  be  a  spawn  of  degeneracy  and 
feeble-mindedness.  They  will  improve  under  training,  but 
it  is  a  positive  danger  to  society  to  make  them  self- 
supporting. 

With  two  or  three  exceptions,  the  children  now  enrolled 
in  Portland's  special  class  belong  to  this  group.  Most  of 
them  certainly  are  strictly  institution  cases.  Instead  of 
expending  inconsequential  effort  on  these  cases,  it  is  wiser 
to  concentrate  effort  upon  those  who  are  merely  backward, 
dull,  "  queer,"  incorrigible,  etc.  It  is  wisest  to  devote  time 
and  money  where  we  may  hope  for  greatest  return. 


System  of  Health  Supervision  369 

Special  Classes  for  Truants,  Incorrigibles,  and  Other 

Misfits 

To  be  convinced  of  the  fruitfulness  of  this  field,  the 
reader  will  need  only  to  examine  the  latest  report  of  Mr. 
E.  J.  Lickley,  Supervisor  of  Compulsory  Education  in  Los 
Angeles.1  No  mistake  would  be  made  if  the  Los  Angeles 
method  of  dealing  with  this  problem  were  copied  in  detail 
by  Portland.  The  teachers  are  all  men.  Manual  and  trade 
work,  play  and  athletics  are  emphasized.  Truancy  is  no 
longer  dealt  with  by  the  Juvenile  Court.  The  percentage 
of  daily  attendance  is  every  month  higher  in  the  truant 
schools  than  in  any  regular  school  in  the  city.  No  pupil 
in  these  schools  is  expelled  or  suspended,  and  punishment 
of  any  kind  is  rare.  Almost  every  boy  makes  good,  and 
hundreds  are  saved  from  careers  of  criminality  and  started 
on  the  road  to  upright  living  and  good  citizenship.2 

SUMMARY   OF   RECOMMENDATIONS 

1.  That  medical  supervision  be  taken  over  by  the  Board 
of  Education. 

2.  That  its  scope  be  enlarged  to  include  inspection  for 
many  kinds  of  defects  which  are  now  seldom  reported. 

3.  That  the  work  be  placed  under  the  supervision  of  a 
well-paid,  full-time  physician  who  has  had  wide  experience 
in  this  line  of  health  service  and  who  appreciates  the  edu- 
cational aspects  of  the  problem. 

4.  That  besides  the  chief  director,  two  full-time  and  two 
half-time  physicians  be  employed  (one  of  the  full-time  physi- 
cians to  be  a  woman  and  one  of  the  half-time  physicians  to 
be  an  .eye,  ear,  nose,  and  throat  specialist),  and  one  full- 
time  dentist. 

1  See  Psychological  Clinic,  May,  1913. 
8  See  also  Chapter  XI,  page  266. 


37Q  The  Portland  Survey 

5.  That  at  least  seven  additional  full-time  nurses  be  em- 
ployed, so  that  adequate  follow-up  service  may  be  organized 
and  vigorously  prosecuted. 

6.  That  an  efficient  system  of  records  and  reports  be 
instituted. 

7.  That  annual  vision  and  hearing  tests  be  made  by  the 
teachers,  under  the  direction  of  the  chief  medical  director. 

8.  That   greater   emphasis   be   placed   upon   preventive 
work  and  upon  the  treatment  of  so-called  "  minor  "  defects 
which  are  likely  to  lead  to  ill  health. 

9.  That  candidates  for  teaching  positions  be  required  to 
pass  a  physical  examination,  conducted  by  the  school  medi- 
cal department,  and  that  attention  be  given  to  the  health  of 
teachers  in  service. 

10.  That  the  teaching  of  hygiene  be  made  less  academic, 
and  that  ittbe  directed  especially  toward  the  cultivation  of 
hygienic  habits  of  living. 

11.  That  playgrounds  be  increased  in  number  and  size 
as  rapidly  as  finances  will  permit,  and  that  the  playground 
instruction  be  organized  and  combined  with  the  department 
of  physical  training. 

12.  That  a  few  open-air  schools  be  established  at  once, 
and  that  their  number  be  increased  rapidly  until  they  can 
accommodate  all  the  anaemic,  debilitated  children  in  the 
schools  (or  at  least  5  per  cent,  of  the  enrollment). 

13.  That  plans  be  made  for  the  organization,  in  the  near 
future,  of  a  more  adequate  system  of  special  classes  for  the 
deaf  (to  include  a  number  of  children  whose  hearing  is  not 
quite  destroyed  but  who  cannot  profit  from  ordinary  in- 
struction), the  blind,  the  crippled  (certain  classes  of  cripples 
only),  stutterers,  etc. 

14.  That  warm  lunches  be  served  in  several   schools, 
where  a  fairly  large  proportion  of  the  children  are  under- 
nourished. 


System  of  Health  Supervision  371 

15.  That  a  psychologist  be  employed  to  assist  in  the 
study  of  mentally  peculiar  and  defective  children,  with  a 
view  to  the  segregation  of  certain  types  of  cases  in  special 
schools.    The  chief  problem  here  is  the  "  border  line  "  child. 

1 6.  That  attention  be  given  to  the  more  important  as- 
pects of  the  hygiene  of  instruction,  including  the  choice  of 
hygienic  textbooks,  the  regulation  of  home  study,  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  daily  program,  the  number  of  recesses, 
and  kindred  matters. 


PART   IV 
Attendance,  Records,  and  Costs 


CHAPTER    XV1 
SCHOOL   CENSUS   AND    ATTENDANCE 

PREFATORY  NOTE:  The  principal  sources  for  the  preparation  of  this  portion 
of  the  report  have  been  (a)  the  special  oral  and  written  information  furnished  by 
the  School  Clerk  and  the  Truant  Officer;  (b)  the  description  of  the  method 
followed  in  taking  the  census,  as  given  by  two  principals;  and  (c)  the  official 
blanks  and  reports  to  which  reference  is  made. 

E.  C.  ELLIOTT. 

THE  SCHOOL   CENSUS 

A  COMPLETE,  accurate,  and  continuous  census  of  the 
school  population  of  the  city  is  an  indispensable  fac- 
tor for  the  best  and  most  effective  administration  of  a  pub- 
lic school  system  organized  to  provide  an  education  for  all 
the  children  in  the  community.  Such  a  census  affords  an 
index  to  the  changing  educational  needs  of  the  city,  arising 
from  the  growth,  movement,  and  character  of  the  popula- 
tion. The  extent  to  which  the  enforcement  of  the  Compul- 
sory Education  and  Child  Labor  Laws  is  possible  depends 
very  largely  upon  the  completeness  and  reliability  of  the 
school  census.  Furthermore,  the  state,  for  its  own  pur- 
poses, requires  an  annual  counting  of  children  of  legal 
school  age. 

Legal  Provisions  concerning  School  Census 

The  annual  school  census  now  taken  in  Portland  is  regu- 
lated directly  by  the  statutes  of  the  state. 

"Every  district  clerk  shall  enroll  annually  during  the  last  week  in  November 
for  school  purposes  the  names  and  ages  of  all  persons  in  his  district  over  four 

1  Chapters  XV  and  XVI  were  written  by  Professor  E.  C.  Elliott.  —  EDITOR. 

375 


376  The  Portland  Survey 

and  under  twenty  years  of  age  and  also  the  names  and  post-office  addresses  of 
all  parents  and  guardians  of  such  persons  resident  in  the  district.  This  annual 
school  census  shall  include  all  youths  between  the  ages  of  four  and  twenty 
years  who,  on  the  twenty-fifth  day  of  November,  actually  resided  in  the  dis- 
trict." (Lord's  Oregon  Laws,  Section  4069.) 

The  enumeration  made  under  the  above  provision  is  used 
by  the  state  as  the  basis  for  the  classification  of  school  dis- 
tricts (L.  O.  L.,  Sec.  4020),  for  the  distribution  of  the  com- 
mon or  irreducible  school  fund  (L.  O.  L.,  Sec.  3973,  3974), 
and  for  the  per  capita  county  school  tax  of  eight  dollars 
(Laws,  1911,  Chap.  84).  Also,  the  county  school  fund  is 
partially  apportioned  according  to  the  number  of  census 
children. 

A  special  enumeration  of  the  name,  age,  and  residence 
of  blind  or  deaf  children  is  provided  for  (L.  O.  L.,  Sec. 
4072). 

The  blanks  for  the  census  are  provided  by  the  State 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  The  individual 
enumeration  blank  contains  the  following  items : 

1.  .Name  of  parent  or  guardian 

2.  Address 

3.  Names  of  children  classified  as  to  sex  and  according 

to  three  age  groups : 

(a)  4  and  5 

(b)  6,  7,  and  over  15  and  under  20 

(c)  Over  8  and  under  15 

Blind  and  deaf  children  are  enumerated  separately  and 
classified  as  above. 

The  blank  containing  the  summary  provides  for  the  totals 
for  each  sex  of  each  of  the  three  specified  age  groups,  and 
also  such  totals  for  blind  and  deaf  children.  This  blank 
also  calls  for  the  number  of  legal  voters  for  school  purposes, 
and  for  information  concerning  private  schools  —  number 
of  teachers  employed,  number  of  pupils  enrolled,  number 
of  private  schools,  and  number  of  months  private  schools 
are  in  session. 


School  Census  and  Attendance  377 

Certified  copies  of  the  school-census  returns  must  be  for- 
warded by  the  district  clerk  within  ten  days  after  taking  to 
the  county  school  superintendent  (L.  O.  L.,  Sec.  4071)  ; 
also  a  special  segregated  report  in  the  case  of  districts  of 
the  first  class  (Sec.  4114). 

The  Compulsory  Education  Law  provides  that  the  clerk 
of  the  first-class  district  school  boards  shall,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  school,  furnish  a  copy  of  the  school  census 
to  the  city  superintendent  or  the  principal  of  the  schools 
in  such  district,  together  with  the  names  and  addresses  of 
the  truant  officers  whose  jurisdiction  is  in  the  district.  It 
is  made  the  legal  duty  of  the  city  superintendent  or  prin- 
cipal at  the  opening  of  school  and  every  four  weeks  there- 
after, to  compare  the  census  list  with  the  enrollment  of  the 
school,  or  schools,  and  to  report  to  the  proper  truant  officer 
the  name  and  address  of  any  parent  or  person  in  parental 
relation  to  a  child  not  in  regular  attendance  at  the  public 
schools,  and  also  the  name  of  such  child. 

Plan  of  Taking  Census  in  Portland 

The  actual  census  practice  in  Portland  is  as  follows :  The 
enumerators,  mostly  principals  of  schools,  are  selected  by 
the  school  clerk.  The  census  area,  therefore,  is  usually  the 
district  supplied  by  the  school  of  such  principal-enumerator. 
The  expressed  motives  for  selecting  principals  for  this  serv- 
ice, aside  from  that  of  convenience,  are  that  they  have  a 
chief  interest  in  seeing  that  all  the  children  in  their  districts 
are  included  in  the  census,  and  that  the  house-to-house  can- 
vass gives  a  good  opportunity  for  them  to  become  familiar 
with  the  school  patrons  and  with  the  home  conditions  of 
pupils. 

The  individual  enumeration  blanks  furnished  by  the  State 
Superintendent  are  made  out  in  carbon  triplicate,  arranged 
alphabetically  for  each  enumeration  district,  and  substan- 
tially bound.  One  of  the  three  copies  is  deposited  with  the 
county  superintendent  of  schools,  one  with  the  principal  of 


378  The  Portland  Survey 

the  school  of  the  enumeration  district,  and  one  is  retained 
by  the  school  clerk.  The  apparent  presumption  is  that  the 
census  list  given  to  the  principal  is  to  be  used  as  a  check 
list  upon  the  school  enrollment.  However,  it  does  not  ap- 
pear that  these  lists  are  systematically  used  for  this  or  any 
other  purpose ;  they  therefore  are  "  dead  "  after  the  sum- 
mary of  the  enumeration  has  been  prepared. 

Instructions  to  Enumerators 

The  instructions  given  to  the  enumerators  are  of  the  most 
general  sort: 

1.  Make  three  copies  of  each  sheet. 

2.  Enroll  the  names  and  ages  of  all  persons  (including  young  married 
people)  over  four  and  under  twenty  years  of  age  who  resided  in  this  district 
November  25.    Also  enroll  the  names  and  post-office  addresses  of  parents  or 
guardians  of  all  persons  over  four  and  under  twenty. 

3.  Enroll  separately  the  name,  residence,  post-office  address  and  age  of 
every  blind  and  every  deaf  person  over  four  and  under  twenty  years  of  age  who 
resided  in  this  district  November  25.    Blind,  or  deaf,  applies  to  each  person 
blind,  or  deaf,  to  such  an  extent  as  to  prevent  him  or  her  from  acquiring  an 
education  in  the  common  schools. 

4.  Legal  voters  for  school  purposes  comprise  any  citizen,  male  or  female, 
who  is  twenty-one  years  of  age  and  has  resided  in  the  district  thirty  days  im- 
mediately preceding  date  of  inquiry,  and  who  has  property  in  the  district  in  his, 
or  her,  name,  as  shown  by  the  last  county  assessment,  and  not  assessed  by  the 
sheriff,  on  which  he,  or  she,  is  liable  to  pay  a  tax;  provided,  that  any  man  who 
has  declared  his  intention  to  become  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  has 
resided  in  the  state  for  six  months  immediately  preceding  the  date  of  inquiry, 
shall  be  considered  a  citizen  of  the  state;  provided,  further,  that  any  person 
shall  be  deemed  to  have  complied  with  the  property  qualifications  mentioned 
above  who  has  stock,  shares  or  ownership  in  any  corporation,  firm,  or  co- 
partnership which  has  property  in  the  district,  as  shown  by  the  last  county 
assessment,  and  not  assessed  by  the  sheriff,  on  which  said  corporation,  firm,  or 
co-partnership  pays  a  tax,  even  though  his,  or  her,  individual  name  does  not 
appear  upon  the  tax  roll. 

Method  of  Enumeration 

It  does  not  appear  that  any  specific  directions  are  given 
to  the  enumerators  for  the  purpose  of  simplifying  the  pro- 


School  Census  and  Attendance  379 

cedure  for  obtaining1  the  required  information,  or  of  secur- 
ing uniformity  in  the  age  data.  Each  enumerator  is  left  to 
his  own  devices  as  to  the  most  economical  and  productive 
working  plan.  He  is  expected  to  find  all  the  census  children 
in  his  district  and  to  classify  them  into  the  indicated  age 
groups.  In  consequence  of  this  absence  of  a  defined  method, 
some  considerable  variation  in  the  completeness  and  the 
accuracy  of  the  enumerations  in  the  several  sub-districts 
might  be  expected. 

Cost  and  Report 

The  enumerators  are  paid  at  the  rate  of  three  cents  per 
name  in  the  thickly  populated  districts,  and  five  cents  per 
name  in  the  outlying  and  scattered  districts.  The  expense 
thus  incurred,  according  to  the  financial  report  of  the  school 
clerk,  amounted  to  $1,901.38  in  1910-11,  and  to  $2,087.56 
in  I9H-I2.1  The  census  exhibit  presented  by  the  school 
clerk  in  his  annual  report  is  in  the  following  form : 

CENSUS  DATA* 
The  census  for  1911  shows  as  follows: 

Males  between  the  ages  of  4  and  20  years      ....    19,712 
Females  between  the  ages  of  4  and  20  years  ....    20,245 


Total     ..................    39,957 

Divided  as  follows: 

Ages  4  and  5     .................      5,098 

Ages  4,  7,  and  15  to  19  inclusive  .........    16,874 

Ages  8  to  14  inclusive 


Deaf  and  blind  included  in  above: 

Deaf  children  enumerated      ...........         26 

Blind  children  enumerated     ...........          4 

Legal  school  voters: 

Total  voters  enumerated  ............   28,722 

1  These  amounts  are  taken  from  the  details  of  disbursements  for  the  fiscal 
year  ending  June  30. 

2  Thirty-ninth  Annual  Report,  p.  18.    In  1912  the  school  census  had  in- 
creased to  43,121. 


380  The  Portland  Survey 


RECOMMENDATIONS   AS   TO   THE   SCHOOL   CENSUS 

The  circumstances  under  which  this  section  of  the  report 
has  been  prepared  have  not  permitted  that  careful  and  de- 
tailed examination  and  checking  of  the  methods  followed 
by  the  census  enumerators  necessary  for  making  any  criti- 
cism of  the  effectiveness  of  the  present  system  for  securing 
a  proper  census  of  all  children  of  school  age  in  the  school 
district.  It  is  clearly  recognized  that  the  present  general 
plan  of  taking  the  school  census,  as  well  as  its  itemized  char- 
acter, is  determined  by  state  statute.  In  consequence,  the 
school  officials  of  the  city  are  not  entirely  responsible  for 
certain  limitations  of  both  plan  and  method.  Nevertheless, 
so  firm  are  we  in  our  belief  in  the  importance  of  the  school 
census  to  the  enlarging  educational  interests  of  the  city  that 
the  following  recommendations  are  considered  appropriate : 

i.  Need  of  a  permanent  and  continuous  census.  Mani- 
festly the  first  purpose  of  the  census  is  to  obtain  a  complete 
enumeration  of  the  children  of  legal  school  age.  The  rapid 
growth  and  expansion  of  the  city,  with  the  resulting  large 
shifting  of  the  population,  present  a  difficult  obstacle  to 
such  an  enumeration.  The  time  of  the  year  at  which  the 
census  is  taken  (November)  is  most  favorable  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  permanence  of  residence  of  the  city's 
population.  The  school  authorities  have  sought  to  correct 
and  supplement  the  November  census  by  requiring  the  par- 
ent or  guardian  to  fill  out  for  each  child  entering  school  a 
so-called  "  census  form,"  giving  the  name  and  residence  of 
the  child,  month,  year,  and  place  of  birth,  the  date  of  the 
last  successful  vaccination,  and  one  or  two  other  minor 
items.  These  census  forms  serve  as  a  check  list  in  each 
school  for  the  existing  as  well  as  the  next  school  census. 

The  census  form  represents  the  first  step  in  the  making 
of  a  permanent  and  continuous  census.  Notwithstanding 
the  evident  difficulties  and  the  increased  expense,  every  city 
should  at  all  times  be  in  possession  of  a  complete  card  list 


School  Census  and  Attendance  381 


of  all  the  children  of  school  age  residing  within  its  limits 
and  subject  to  the  general  educational  regulation  of  the 
state.  This  list  should  be  in  such  form  as  to  enable  the 
school  officials  to  know  at  all  times  the  school  whereabouts 
of  every  child  of  legal  school  age.  Whenever  a  family 
changes  its  place  of  residence  within  the  city,  a  legal  re- 
quirement of  notifying  school  authorities  should  be  en- 
forced, if  necessary  with  appropriate  penalties.  Proper 
cooperation  of  police,  landlords,  charity  organizations, 
school  teachers  and  principals,  and  the  child-labor  officials, 
will  make  it  possible  for  the  city  to  have  an  accurate  and 
complete  census  at  all  times.  This  permanent  and  continu- 
ous list  then  may  be  used  to  check  the  legal  census  now  re- 
quired by  the  statutes  of  the  state. 

2.  Enumerators.     The  employment  of  school  principals 
for  the  taking  of  school  census  appears  to  us,  in  the  absence 
of  a  properly  organized  attendance  department,  to  be  a  good 
plan.     This  service  guarantees  a  higher  degree  of  intelli- 
gence and  a  readier  adaptation  to  circumstances  than  would 
be  possible  with  special,  intermittent  enumerators.     Under 
the  plan  of  a  permanent  census  suggested  in  the  preceding 
recommendation,  the  annual  enumeration  now  required  by 
law  would  develop  into  making  corrections  and  additions 
to  the  permanent  list.     These  corrections   and   additions 
would  then  best  be  made  by  the  attendance  officers  suggested 
for  appointment  in  the  recommendation  presented  at  the 
conclusion  of  this  chapter.1     In  any  event,  whether  the 
temporary  annual  plan  of  the  census  is  followed,  or  a  per- 
manent and  continuous  census  established,  the  enumerators 
should  receive  far  more  detailed  and  definite  instructions 
than  are  now  given. 

3.  Cost.     In  the  absence  of  any  reliable  and  definite  re- 
port of  the  expense  for  this  item  in  other  cities,  it  would 

1  Page  391. 


3 82  The  Portland  Survey 

seem  that  the  expense  of  the  census  in  its  present  form 
(about  five  cents  per  capita)  is  a  reasonable  one.1 

4.  Report  of  census  returns.  While  the  chief  purpose 
of  the  school  census  has  been  to  discover  the  number  of 
school  children  in  the  city,  it  is  our  judgment  that  there 
are  other  and  more  important  ends  which  should  be 
recognized. 

In  the  first  place,  the  annual  tabulated  summary  of  the 
census  should  be  much  more  detailed  than  the  one  now  pub- 
lished. Instead  of  showing  merely  three  age  groups,  as 
called  for  by  the  state,  the  number  of  boys  and  girls  for  each 
year  group,  four  to  nineteen  inclusive,  should  be  exhibited. 
Such  an  exhibit,  when  compared  with  a  similar  one  of  school 
attendance,  would  reveal  a  number  of  highly  important 
facts  as  to  school  population  and  school  attendance,  as  to 
private  and  parochial  school  attendance,2  withdrawals  from 
school,  children  of  school  age  employed,  needed  school  ac- 
commodations, etc.  These  important  items  have  no  place 
in  the  account  that  the  school  system  now  keeps  with  the 
children  of  the  city. 

In  other  words,  the  school  census  should  be  something 
more  than  a  mere  counting  of  children.  It  should  be  one 

1  The  only  investigation  of  the  subject  of  the  school  census  in  cities  that  has 
been  made  (Regulation  of  City  School  Children:  J.  D.  Haney,  New  York,  1910) 
brings  out  the  lack  of  our  knowledge  as  to  the  cost  of  the  school  census.  In 
some  states  a  per  capita  limit  is  placed.  For  such  states  the  medium  cost  is 
about  four  cents  per  child.  The  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  in  its 
annual  elaborate  exhibit  of  fiscal  statistics  of  city-school  systems,  groups  the 
expense  for  school  elections  and  school  census  as  one  item. 

*  For  instance,  the  report  of  the  191 1  census  shows  17,985  children  of  eight  to 
fourteen  years  inclusive  (the  compulsory  education  limit  up  to  the  amendment  of 
1911).  The  latest  printed  record  of  the  age  of  pupils  attending  public  schools 
is  that  found  on  page  29  of  the  annual  school  report  in  a  table  "Showing  Age 
of  Pupils  in  Different  Classes  for  Term  Ending  June  18,  1912."  Elementary 
schools  only  are  included.  The  reports  of  the  several  high  schools  are  silent 
as  to  the  very  important  item  of  the  distribution  of  the  ages  of  pupils.  However, 
this  table  shows  16,048  pupils  of  the  ages  of  eight  to  fourteen  inclusive.  The 
unanswered  question  is,  Where  are  the  two  thousand  children  of  these  ages  ap- 
parently not  in  school  according  to  this  record? 


School  Census  and  Attendance  383 

of  the  principal  instruments  of  an  effective  school  govern- 
ment that  seeks  to  know  the  full  extent  of  its  responsibility 
to  the  community. 

ATTENDANCE 

Legal  Provisions  concerning  Compulsory  Education 

The  Compulsory  Education  Law  of  the  state  (Lord's 
Oregon  Statutes,  Sees.  4119-4134,  as  amended  by  Chap. 
243,  Laws,  1911)  requires  the  parent  or  guardian  of 
any  child  between  and  including  the  ages  of  nine  and  fif- 
teen years  of  age  to  send  such  child  to  the  public  schools 
for  a  term  of  not  less  than  the  number  of  months  of  pub- 
lic school  held  annually  in  the  district  of  residence.  This 
law  makes  the  usual  exceptions  as  to  children  attending 
private  or  parochial  schools,  children  who  have  completed 
the  elementary  schools,  and  children  physically  unable  to 
attend  school.  The  school  board  of  the  district  of  the  first 
class  is  required  to  provide  truant  officers,  either  by  re- 
questing the  police  authorities  to  detail  one  or  more  mem- 
bers of  the  police  force  to  perform  the  duties  of  truant 
officers,  or  by  appointing  its  own  truant  officer.  By  the 
specific  provision  of  the  law,  truant  officers  are  required 
to  notify  parents  or  guardians  of  children  not  attending 
school,  to  file  court  complaints  against  such  parents  or  guar- 
dians, if  necessary,  and  to  investigate  all  cases  of  truancy 
or  non-attendance  at  school. 

By  the  provisions  of  the  Child  Labor  Law  (Chap.  183, 
Laws,  1911)  of  the  state,  attendance  at  school  is  compul- 
sory for  children  between  the  ages  of  nine  and  fifteen  years, 
during  the  whole  of  the  school  term  in  the  city,  town,  or 
village  of  residence,  and  also  for  children  between  the  ages 
of  fifteen  and  sixteen  years  who  are  not  legally  employed 
in  some  useful  work.  To  be  legally  employed,  a  child  must 
have  a  child  labor  permit.  The  responsibility  for  the  en- 
forcement of  the  child  labor  law  rests  upon  the  Board  of 
Inspectors  of  Child  Labor,  the  secretary  of  which  issues 


384  The  Portland  Survey 

the  child  labor  permits.  Quite  obviously,  the  bulk  of  the 
work  of  the  enforcement  of  the  child  labor  law  is  in  Port- 
land. Consequently  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  the  board 
is  located  there. 

These  two  laws,  the  Compulsory  Education  Law  and  the 
Child  Labor  Law,  are  complementary  efforts  to  secure  to 
all  the  children  of  the  community  the  benefits  of  a  minimum 
amount  of  schooling1  during  that  period  of  life  when  the 
schooling  can  be  made  most  effective.  The  school  census 
is  the  common  ground  upon  which  their  enforcement  rests, 
and  truant  officers  are  responsible  to  the  provisions  of  both 
laws,  which  are  to  be  classed  among  the  best  in  the  country. 

Enforcement  of  School  Attendance 

The  Board  of  School  Directors  for  Portland  has  complied 
with  the  provisions  of  the  Compulsory  Education  Law  to 
the  very  moderate  extent  of  appointing  one  truant  officer, 
to  whom  an  annual  salary  of  $1,370  is  paid.  Under  the 
rules  of  the  board  (page  28)  the  truant  officer  is  under  the 
supervision  of  the  City  Superintendent  of  Schools  during 
the  time  schools  are  in  session,  performing  the  duties  im- 
posed upon  him  by  statute ;  during  other  times  he  is  under 
the  supervision  of  the  School  Clerk.  Besides  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  Compulsory  Education  Law,  the  truant  officer 
has  all  cases  of  the  attendance  upon  school  of  vermin-in- 
fected or  uncleanly  pupils  (par.  100,  Chap.  5,  Laws,  1911), 
trespassing  on  school  property,  vandalism,  improper  use  of 
school  premises,  stealing,  immorality,  poverty,  and  tobacco- 
using  among  school  children. 

The  school  census  of  1912  showed  43,121  children  of 
school  age  in  the  district.  The  enrollment  in  the  fifty-seven 
public  schools  during  the  spring  term  of  1913  was  31,265. 
No  data  are  available  as  to  the  enrollment  of  private  and 
parochial  schools,  which  are  approximately  twenty-four  in 
number. 

The  amount  of  work  necessary  properly  to  enforce  the 


School  Census  and  Attendance  385 

Compulsory  Education  Law  is  altogether  beyond  the  ca- 
pacity of  a  single  officer.  The  present  truant  officer  reports 
that  on  account  of  the  amount  of  his  work,  it  is  impossible 
for  him  to  handle  any  but  the  most  pressing  cases  of  tru- 
ancy and  non-attendance.  Moreover,  he  is  without  ade- 
quate clerical  assistance  and  is  obliged  to  keep  practically  all 
of  the  truancy  records  himself. 


The  school  law  defines  irregular  attendance  as  "  eight  un- 
excused  one-half  day  absences  in  any  four  weeks  the  school 
may  be  in  session  "  (L.  O.  L.,  Sec.  4129).  It  has  not  been 
possible  during  the  Survey  to  determine  the  extent  to  which 
principals  and  teachers  comply  with  this  provision  by  re- 
porting cases  to  the  truant  officer.  The  number  of  cases 
of  irregular  attendance  for  1912-1913  (49)  seems  to  be 
very  small,  in  spite  of  the  high  per  cent,  of  attendance 
reported  for  the  city  (96.1). 

The  individual  record  of  cases  kept  by  the  truant  officer 
is  as  complete  as  could  be  expected  in  the  absence  of  proper 
clerical  assistance. 

A  better  organization  and  operation  of  the  attendance 
department  would  naturally  result  in  the  improvement  of 
the  records,  especially  in  the  matter  of  following  up  cases 
after  the  initial  disposition. 

TRUANT  OFFICER'S  RECORD 

No 

Name  of  child Age Date 

Address Phone 

Parent's  name 

School Grade Mentality 

Date  of  complaint By  whom  made 

Nature  of  complaint 

Disposition  of  case 


386  The  Portland  Survey 

Truant  Officer's  Records 

The  truant  officer  submits  to  the  school  board  each  month, 
giving  in  itemized  detail,  a  report  of  his  work.  At  the  close 
of  the  year  a  similar  report  for  the  entire  year  is  presented. 
It  has  not  been  the  practice  to  include  this  annual  report  of 
the  truant  officer  in  the  annual  school  report,  although  it 
is  unquestionably  of  greater  importance  than  much  of  the 
material  included.  Consequently  the  following  statement 
of  the  classification  and  disposal  of  the  1,400  cases  handled 
by  the  truant  officer  for  the  school  year  1912-1913  may 
properly  be  included  here  as  evidence  both  of  the  amount 
and  extent  of  the  work  undertaken. 

Total  number  of  truancy  cases  reported 342 

Disposition  of  cases: 

Warned  and  returned  to  school 222 

Reported  to  the  Juvenile  Court  as  wards 38 

Transferred  to  other  schools      4 

Reported  to  the  Associated  Charities  and  Child  Labor  Commis- 
sion      2 

Removed  from  the  city 3 

Brought  before  the  Juvenile  Court  and  returned  to  school     .    .  7 

Brought  before  the  Juvenile  Court  and  sent  to  the  Frazier  Home  19 

Parents  brought  before  the  Justice  Court i 

Brought  before  the  Juvenile  Court  and  committed  to  the  Oregon 

State  Training  School 3 

Brought  before  the  Juvenile  Court  and  committed  to  the  Boys' 

and  Girls'  Aid  Society 3 

Required  to  report  at  my  office  weekly 16 

Disposition  deferred 24 

Total  number  of  non-attendance  cases  reported 582 

Disposition  of  cases: 

Warned  and  placed  in  school 345 

Reported  to  the  Juvenile  Court  as  wards 32 

Reported  to  the  Associated  Charities 6 

Removed  from  the  city 16 

Brought  before  the  Juvenile  Court  and  sent  to  the  Frazier  Home  5 
Brought  before  the  Juvenile  Court  and  committed  to  the  Oregon 

State  Training  School 3 


School  Census  and  Attendance  387 

Parents  brought  before  the  Justice  Court 4 

Brought  before  the  Juvenile  Court  and  returned  to  school     .    .  4 

Sickness  and  poverty  found  to  be  the  cause  of  non-attendance  .  29 

Reported  to  the  Child  Labor  Commission      18 

Labor  permits  secured 13 

Special  permits  secured  from  the  City  Superintendent    ....  2 

Transferred  to  parochial  schools 8 

Reported  to  the  British  Aid  Society i 

Disposition  deferred 96 

Total  number  of  irregular  attendance  cases  reported 49 

Disposition  of  cases: 

Warned  and  continued  in  school 29 

Reported  to  the  Juvenile  Court  as  wards 7 

Reported  to  the  Child  Labor  Commission      2 

Reported  to  the  Associated  Charities i 

Reported  to  the  Boys'  and  Girls'  Aid  Society 2 

Removed  from  the  city i 

Disposition  deferred 7 

Total  number  of  cases  of  general  misconduct 286 

(This  includes  incorrigibility,  immorality,  indecency,  petty  thiev- 
ery, cigarette  smoking,  etc.) 

Disposition  of  cases: 

Warned  and  continued  in  school 135 

Reported  to  the  Juvenile  Court  as  wards  . 42 

Removed  from  the  city 5 

Returned  to  the  Oregon  State  Training  School  as  wards  ...  5 

Reported  to  the  Oregon  State  Training  School  as  wards  ...  i 
Brought  before  the  Juvenile  Court  and  sent  to  the  State  Training 

School 8 

Brought  before  the  Juvenile  Court  and  sent  to  the  Frazier  Home  20 

Reported  to  the  Juvenile  Court  for  investigation 4 

Reported  to  the  Associated  Charities i 

Brought  before  the  Juvenile  Court,  and  escaped i 

Brought  before  the  Juvenile  Court,  and  continued  in  school  .  .  19 

Transferred  to  other  schools  i 

Required  to  report  at  the  office  weekly 18 

Taken  before  the  Juvenile  Court  and  remanded  to  the  Circuit 

Court i 

Reported  to  the  City  Health  Department  2 

Transferred  to  parochial  schools 5 

Reported  to  the  Police  Department i 

Removed  from  school  and  labor  permit  secured i 


388  The  Portland  Survey 

Taken  before  the  Juvenile  Court  and  committed  to  the  Boys'  and 

Girls'  Aid  Society i 

Disposition  deferred 15 

Total  number  of  cases  of  trespass  reported 42 

Disposition  of  cases: 

Children  warned  and  parents  notified     35 

Police  Department  notified i 

Disposition  deferred 6 

Total  number  of  cases  of  children  found  on  streets 89 

Disposition  of  cases: 

Placed  in  school 68 

Removed  from  city 3 

Reported  to  the  Child  Labor  Commission      4 

Labor  permits  secured 5 

Transferred  to  other  schools     3 

Physician's  certificates  secured i 

Disposition  deferred 5 

Total  number  of  cases  of  poverty  reported o. 

Disposition  of  cases: 

Reported  to  the  Juvenile  Court  as  wards i 

Reported  to  the  Associated  Charities 8 

Total  number  of  cases  of  filth,  pediculosis,  etc.,  reported 2 

Disposition  of  cases: 

Health  office  notified i 

Parents  notified  and  warned     i 

Total  number  of  cases  reported  to  the  Child  Labor  Commission  ....  34 

Total  number  of  cases  reported  by  the  Child  Labor  Commission  ....  60 

Visits  to  the  Juvenile  Court  in  prosecution  of  cases 38 

Visits  to  homes  for  investigation  of  cases 340 

Visits  to  schools 327 

Legal  notices,  letters  of  warning,  and  other  communications  sent ....  586 

Special  investigations 15 

Visits  to  the  Justice  Court 3 

Total  number  of  wards  reported  to  the  Juvenile  Court 117 

Total  number  of  children  brought  before  the  Juvenile  Court  and  returned 

to  school 29 

Total  number  of  children  sent  to  the  Frazier  Home 44 

Total  number  of  children  sent  to  the  Oregon  State  Training  School  through 

the  Juvenile  Court 19 


School  Census  and  Attendance  389 

(Part  of  these  have  been  wards  of  the  Oregon  State  Training  School 

and  have  been  returned  to  that  institution.) 

Total  number  children  committed  to  the  Boys'  and  Girls'  Aid  Society  by 
the  Juvenile  Court 4 

The  1,400  cases  reported  to  this  office  during  the  past  year  directly  concern 
1,6 1 8  children. 

During  the  year  investigations  of  153  cases  have  been  deferred,  owing  to 
lack  of  time.  Of  these,  135  have  been  disposed  of.  This  leaves  18  cases  of 
which  no  disposition  has  been  made. 

Certain  features  of  the  monthly  and  annual  reports  of 
the  truant  officer  are  open  to  some  criticism.  No  provision 
seems  to  be  made  in  this  report  for  carrying  forward  and 
reporting  upon  the  "  disposition  deferred  "  cases.  Again, 
the  details  relative  to  disposition  are  incomplete  and  mis- 
leading. The  really  significant  question  to  be  answered 
relative  to  the  342  truancy  cases  reported  during  1912-1913 
is  how  many  truants  were  actually  returned  to  school  (was 
this  the  case  of  the  child  or  children  of  the  one  parent 
brought  before  the  Justice  Court  or  of  those  sixteen  chil- 
dren required  to  report  to  the  truant  officer  each  week?) 
and  the  character  of  the  attendance  thereafter.  However, 
these  and  other  important  questions  could  be  promptly  and 
completely  answered  only  by  an  attendance  department  or- 
ganized and  conducted  on  a  broad  educational  basis. 

Critical  Comment 

With  the  wholly  inadequate  facilities  now  provided,  it 
would  be  unfair  to  the  present  officer  to  criticise  his  methods 
of  work  or  to  contrast  them  with  those  of  a  properly  organ- 
ized attendance  department.  It  is  evident  that  the  Board 
of  School  Directors  has  forgotten  that  Portland  is  no  longer 
a  small,  compact  town,  the  school  attendance  affairs  of 
which  could  be  cared  for  by  one  officer,  and  has  been  un- 
willing to  take  measures  to  secure  that  quality  of  regular 
attendance  upon  the  public  schools  demanded  alike  by  the 
Compulsory  Attendance  Law  and  for  the  most  economical 


3QO  The  Portland  Survey 

use  of  the  educational  advantages  of  the  school  system.  The 
attendance  department,  as  represented  by  the  single  truant 
officer,  has  been  regarded  almost  wholly  from  the  narrow 
point  of  view  of  its  police  function,  that  is,  of  caring  for  the 
more  aggravated  cases  of  non-attendance.  The  larger  and 
far  more  important  function  of  such  a  department  is  that 
of  disclosing  and  treating  the  causes  that  underlie  truancy, 
irregular  attendance,  incorrigibility,  and  early  withdrawal 
from  school.  The  defects  of  the  present  "  police  "  position 
of  the  attendance  department  have  been  again  and  again 
indicated  to  the  Board  of  School  Directors  in  the  reports 
of  the  truant  officer.  In  particular  has  he  called  attention 
to  the  necessity  of  making  proper  provision  for  delinquent 
and  incorrigible  children.  This  necessity  has  been  fully 
supported  by  the  records  of  his  own  office  as  well  as  the 
records  of  the  Juvenile  Court 

During  1911-1912,  Portland's  position  among  certain 
cities  in  the  country,  for  which  information  is  available, 
concerning  the  expense  of  the  enforcement  of  compulsory 
education  and  truancy  laws,  may  be  exhibited  by  the  fol- 
lowing figures,  showing  the  expenditures  for  this  purpose 
per  thousand  enrollment  in  elementary  schools : 

Cambridge,  Mass $272  Providence,  R.  I $122 

Denver,  Colo 207  Minneapolis,  Minn 106 

Louisville,  Ky 200  Omaha,  Neb 102 

Kansas  City,  Mo 172  Spokane,  Wash 76 

Oakland,  Cal 141  PORTLAND,  ORE.     .       .  45 

Portland  needs  to  increase  both  the  dignity  of  its  school- 
attendance  department  and  the  expenditure  for  it. 


RECOMMENDATIONS 

In  view  of  the  recognized  importance  of  the  regular  at- 
tendance of  children  upon  school  as  a  large  factor  for  the 
most  economical  and  effective  utilization  of  the  facilities 
of  the  public  school  system  of  the  city,  and  in  view  of  the 


School  Census  and  Attendance  391 

existing  conditions  in  American  cities,  which  demonstrate 
the  necessity  of  constant  and  competent  oversight  as  a  con- 
dition of  regularity,  we  recommend : 

1.  That  there  be  created  in  the  school  department  a 
bureau  or  division  of  school  attendance,  at  the  head  of 
which  shall  be  an  officer  known  as  the  Superintendent  of 
School  Attendance;  that  at  least  five  attendance  officers  be 
appointed   for  service  under  this  superintendent,   for  the 
oversight  and  betterment  of  school  attendance  in  general, 
for  the  enforcement  of  the  Compulsory  Education  Law  and 
those  parts  of  the  Child  Labor  Law  for  which  truant  officers 
are  responsible,  and  for  general  out-of-school  supervision 
of  incorrigible  and  delinquent  children. 

2.  That  the  taking  of  the  school  census  and  care  of  its 
records  be  placed  under  the  charge  of  the  Superintendent  of 
Attendance. 


CHAPTER    XVI 
RECORDS    AND    REPORTS1 

RECORD  OF  BOARD  PROCEEDINGS 

THE  minutes  of  the  proceedings  and  the  memoranda  of 
the  transactions  of  the  Board  of  School  Directors  and 
its  committees  are  recorded  by  the  School  Clerk  promptly 
and  in  complete  and  satisfactory  form.  Moreover,  the  con- 
duct of  the  affairs  of  the  board  is  greatly  facilitated  by  the 
efficient  mechanical  preparation  of  all  matters  brought  be- 
fore it  or  its  committees  for  consideration.  While  the  me- 
chanical procedure  for  making  and  caring  for  the  records 
of  board  and  committee  actions  is  entitled  to  approval,  the 
question  naturally  arises  in  a  school  system  of  this  size 
whether  or  not  the  minutes  of  the  proceedings  of  the  board 
and  the  memoranda  of  its  principal  transactions  should  not 
be  regularly  and  systematically  printed.  This  would  en- 
able all  the  members  of  the  board  to  have  ready  and  con- 
venient access  to  the  record  of  past  actions,  and  furthermore 
would  encourage  a  wider  appreciation  on  the  part  of  citi- 
zens of  the  functions  and  activities  of  the  board. 

At  any  rate,  the  written  (typewritten)  minutes  and  mem- 
oranda should  be  more  fully  indexed  and  cross-referenced 
than  under  the  present  plan.  While  practically  the  clerk  is 

1  The  official  recorded  proceedings  of  the  Board  of  Education  for  the  past 
year  have  been  examined  in  detail.  In  connection  with  the  presentation  of  the 
critical  estimate  relative  to  the  annual  report  of  the  Board  of  School  Directors, 
the  annual  reports  for  the  past  ten  years  —  Thirtieth  (1902-1903)  to  Thirty- 
ninth  (1911-1912)  inclusive  —  have  been  reviewed.  For  a  complete  list  of 
the  administrative  forms  and  blanks  submitted  for  examination,  see  pages 
400  to  403.  Opportunity  has  not  been  sufficient  during  the  Survey  to  make  a 
critical  estimate  of  the  forms  and  blanks  belonging  to  other  departments  than 
the  educational  department.  —  E.  C.  ELLIOTT. 

392 


Records  and  Reports  393 

now  able,  through  his  constant  and  intimate  participation 
in  the  affairs  of  the  board,  to  serve  as  a  reliable  source  of 
information  relative  to  previous  actions  of  the  board  for 
their  proper  usefulness,  these  records  should  be  in  a  form 
independent  of  any  single  officer. 

THE   ANNUAL   REPORT 

The  Board  of  School  Directors  complies  with  the  legal 
requirement  imposed  upon  school  boards  in  districts  of  the 
first  class,  "  to  make  an  annual  printed  report  to  the  tax- 
payers of  said  district "  (Lord's  Oregon  Statutes,  Sec. 
4102).  This  annual  report  is  usually  issued  during  the 
summer,  and,  though  indicated  on  the  title  page  as  being  for 
the  year  ending  with  the  close  of  school  in  June,  contains 
the  School  Clerk's  report,  addressed  to  the  legal  voters,  for 
the  year  ending  December  15 ;  the  School  Director's  report, 
addressed  to  the  taxpayers,  and  submitted  to  an  annual  meet- 
ing generally  held  during  the  last  week  of  December;  and 
the  report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Schools,  addressed  to 
the  school  board,  for  the  annual  school  year  ending  in  June. 

CONTENTS   OF   THE  ANNUAL   REPORT 

The  following  enumeration  of  the  principal  items  con- 
tained in  the  school  report  for  1911-1912  is  typical  of  these 
reports  for  the  past  decade: 

School  Clerk's  report.    (2  pages.) 

A  brief  itemized  statement  of  receipts,  disbursements,  and  indebtedness  for 
the  past  year;  and  a  tabulated  summary  of  the  school  census.  Appended 
is  a  formal  statement  of  the  special  auditing  committee. 

School  director's  report.    (4  pages.) 

A  brief  commentary  upon  matters  concerning  chiefly  finance  and  the  school 
plant,  together  with  an  estimate  of  expenditures  for  the  coming  year. 

Superintendent  of  schools.     (47  pages.) 

As  a  "report  of  the  condition  and  progress  of  the  public  schools"  contains: 
annual  and  monthly  statistical  tables  of  enrollment,  attendance,  and  dis- 


394  The  Portland  Survey 

cipline;  ages  of  pupils  in  different  classes  of  elementary  schools;  nativity 

of  pupils;  number  of  teachers.    (10  pages.) 
Tabulated  statement  showing  name,  place  of  graduation,  years  of  experience, 

years  in  Portland  schools,  certificate  held,  school,  and  grade  of  position  of 

teachers  employed  during  the  year.     (19  pages.) 
Name  of  pupils  promoted  from  the  grammar  grades  to  the  high  school  during 

the  year.    (10  pages.) 
High  school  graduates  and  commencement  programs.    (8  pages.) 

Appendix  to  superintendent's  report.     (13^  pages.) 

Reports  of  principals  of  high  schools.    Confined  exclusively  to  a  statement 

of  the  enrollment  in  the  several  courses  and  subjects,  together  with  the 

number  of  credits  attempted  and  the  number  earned  during  the  year  and 

the  number  of  graduates.    (4  pages.) 
Schedule  of  teachers'  salaries,    (i  page.) 
Corps  of  teachers  for  1912-1913.    (7^  pages.) 
School  calendar  for  1912-1913  and  announcements  as  to  teachers'  meetings 

and  teachers'  examinations,    (i  page.) 

Clerk's  supplementary  reports.     (43  pages.) 

Boundaries  of  school  district,     (i  page.) 

Boundaries  of  sub-districts.     (14  pages.) 

List  of  textbooks  used  in  high  and  elementary  schools.    (2  pages.) 

Tabular  statement  relative  to  school  buildings;  date  of  construction,  num- 
ber of  rooms,  heating,  cleaning,  and  fire  systems.  (6  pages.) 

Location,  description  and  area  of  property  owned  by  school  district.  (4 
pages.) 

Estimated  cash  value  of  property  owned  by  school  district,    (i  page.) 

List  of  school  directors  and  officers  since  1851.    (2  pages.) 

School  janitors  for  1912-1913.    (i  page.) 

Schedule  of  janitors'  salaries,    (j^  page.) 

Number  of  teachers  of  different  grades  of  position,  June  30,  1912.    (%  page.) 

Comparative  statement  of  receipts  and  disbursements,  n  years,    (i  page.) 

Number  of  teachers  employed  in  each  school,  classified  according  to  salary 
paid.  (2  pages.) 

Sundry  statistical  and  financial  statements  and  supplementary  memoranda. 
(7  pages.) 

Index.     (2  pages.) 

Insert.  Showing  complete  detail  of  disbursements  by  items  and  by  schools 
for  year  ending  June  30,  1912. 

With  the  possible  exception  of  the  financial  statements,1 
this  annual  report  of  the  public  schools  has  remained  sub- 
stantially the  same  in  form  and  scope  during  the  past  ten 

1  See  pages  400  to  401. 


Records  and  Reports  395 

years  (195  pages,  1910-1911).  During  that  time  (ex- 
cepting for  1906-1907  and  1911-1912),  these  reports  have 
also  contained  the  detailed  outline  of  the  courses  of  study 
in  elementary  and  secondary  schools.  The  several  items 
given  in  the  clerk's  supplementary  report  noted  above  are 
to  be  found  only  in  the  last  two  annual  reports. 

The  annual  report  is  not  a  report  within  the  proper 
meaning  of  that  word.  It  has  become  merely  a  mechanical 
record  of  only  certain  features  of  the  formal  operation  of 
the  school  system.  It  gives  no  evidence  that  the  school 
authorities  have  been  influenced  by  the  widespread  move- 
ment of  recent  years  for  the  betterment  and  increased  use- 
•  fulness  of  such  reports. 

FUNCTIONS   OF   THE   ANNUAL  REPORT 

The  annual  report  of  the  public  school  system  should  be 
in  such  form  and  content  as  to  serve  for  a  ready  means  for 
community  publicity  as  to  the  real  progress  and  perform- 
ances of  the  schools,  and  as  an  effective  instrument  for 
stimulating  the  citizens  of  the  school  district  to  action  for 
meeting  the  demonstrated  needs  of  the  schools.  It  should 
be  the  chief  means  of  communication  between  the  people 
and  their  authorized  officials  as  to  the  conduct  of  public 
school  affairs.  The  report  should  stand  not  only  as  perma- 
nent evidence  of  the  honesty  of  that  conduct,  but  as  a  mark 
of  the  capacity  of  the  board  and  its  officers  to  serve  as  edu- 
cational leaders  in  the  community.  People  in  this  day  are 
not  affected  in  their  attitude  toward  education,  except  in  a 
merely  passive  way,  by  perfunctory  testimony  as  to  the 
honest  conduct  of  public  affairs.  The  people  of  the  modern 
city  need,  for  the  best  development  of  the  educational  sys- 
tem, that  stimulation  that  comes  from  public-spirited,  ear- 
nest, energetic,  far-sighted  boards  and  officials,  capable  of 
causing  them  to  understand  the  meaning  and  possibilities 
of  the  public  schools.  Only  thus  will  there  be  developed  a 
right  quality  of  confidence  and  a  proper  degree  of  public 


396  The  Portland  Survey 

cooperation  on  the  part  of  the  people.  Upon  such  confi- 
dence and  cooperation  the  public  schools  are  ultimately 
built.  Complacency  is  not  confidence.  Proper  concurrence 
in  official  action  is  not  popular  cooperation  by  the  people  in 
that  action. 

The  present  annual  report  is  not  an  effective  report 
because  it  is  chiefly  a  collection  of  cold,  conventional  facts, 
loosely  arranged  and  presented  in  a  purely  formal  manner, 
and  without  any  indication  of  their  vital  relationship  to  the 
efficiency  or  growth  of  the  educational  system.  If  the  people 
of  Portland  have  been  slow  in  their  response  to  the  in- 
creasing and  enlarging  needs  of  the  school  system,  this  is 
due  in  part  at  least  to  the  failure  of  the  responsible  school 
authorities  to  emphasize  their  educational  stewardship  of 
children.  The  educational  records  must  deal,  first  of  all, 
with  children  and  their  education.  There  is  no  value  in 
accounting  for  the  expenditure  of  public  money  for  public 
schools  unless  that  accounting  is  accompanied  by  a  demon- 
stration of  results  and  products.  The  difficulty  is  not  with 
the  financial  accounts,  but  with  the  educational  accounts. 
They  are  inadequate  because  the  blanks  for  the  gathering 
of  data  and  information  have  not  been  designed  to  record 
the  real  educational  experience  of  the  schools.  This  experi- 
ence must  be  recorded  before  it  may  be  reported  and  inter- 
preted for  the  guidance  and  increased  intelligence  of  the 
citizens  of  the  community.  In  other  words,  Portland's 
school  accounts  keep  track  of  dollars,  rather  than  of 
children. 

RECORD   FORMS   AND   BLANKS 

The  numerous  statistical  forms  and  administrative  blanks 
listed  on  pages  400  to  403  of  this  section  of  the  report  are 
easily  separable  into  two  general  groups : 

i.  Those  of  a  temporary  or  routine  character,  devised 
and  employed  primarily  to  expedite  the  operation  of  the 
existing  machinery  of  the  school  system ;  to  adjust  this  ma- 


Records  and  Reports  397 

chinery  to  the  established  practices  and  customs  of  the 
outside  business  world ;  to  save  time  and  to  check  honesty. 

2.  Those  of  a  more  special  and  permanent  character, 
used  primarily  for  the  determination  of  the  educational 
efficiency  and  productivity  of  the  school  organization,  and, 
therefore,  as  a  possible  basis  for  the  betterment  of  the 
machinery  and  the  control  of  the  machinery  of  the  school 
system. 

By  far  the  larger  number  of  the  records  and  reports  now 
used  in  both  the  business  and  educational  departments  be- 
long to  the  first  group.  Our  general  estimate,  after  an 
examination  of  all  the  forms  and  blanks,  is  that  there 
are  too  many  of  them;  that  too  much  importance  is  given 
to  trivial  and  unessential  operations.  The  teachers  and 
principals  are  required  to  devote  too  much  time  and  energy 
to  the  making  of  records  and  reports  which  are  not  and 
cannot  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  checking  the  results  of 
teaching  and  promoting  the  improvement  of  the  educational 
system  of  a  city. 

It  is  obviously  beyond  the  immediate  intent  and  purpose 
of  this  survey  to  make  a  minute,  critical  analysis  of  the 
several  statistical  forms  and  administrative  blanks.  More 
useful,  perhaps,  would  be  some  indication  as  to  what  funda- 
mental records  of  the  operation  of  the  school  system  should 
be  kept  and  reported.  The  particular  forms  and  devices  for 
obtaining  the  necessary  data  can  then  be  more  effectively 
determined  by  the  active  supervisory  and  inspecting  staff. 

FUNDAMENTAL   EDUCATIONAL   RECORDS    NEEDED 

The  weakness  of  the  present  system  may  be  said  to  lie 
in  the  absence  of  those  statistical  records  that  enable  edu- 
cational officials  to  determine  the  extent  to  which  the  edu- 
cational system  actually  serves  the  purpose  of  economically 
educating  all  the  children  of  the  community.  As  a  con- 
spicuous instance  of  this,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  since 
1897  Portland  has  had  a  distinctive  scheme  of  classification 


398  The  Portland  Survey 

and  promotion  of  pupils  in  elementary  schools.  Each  year 
the  Superintendent  of  Schools  has  presented  a  table  showing 
the  enrollment  and  ages  of  pupils  in  each  of  the  several 
groups  and  divisions.  Nowhere  is  there  to  be  found  a 
record  of  the  promotions  and  failures  of  pupils,  indicative 
of  the  advantages  of  this  scheme. 

What  fundamental  items  should  the  educational  account- 
ing or  recording  plan  of  the  city  contain?  The  following 
are  suggested  for  consideration.  (Those  indicated  by  an 
asterisk  are  not  now  provided  for  in  the  existing  system  of 
records. ) 

*i.  A  complete,  accurate,  and  continuous  school  census, 
tabulated  and  summarized  so  as  to  show  the  number  of  chil- 
dren residing  in  each  sub-district  by  sex,  for  each  year-age 
group  between  four  and  nineteen  years  inclusive ;  the  number 
of  boys  and  girls  of  each  age  attending  public,  private,  and 
parochial  schools;  and  the  number  between  fourteen  and 
sixteen  years  of  age  not  attending  school,  in  possession  of 
work  permits,  and  the  character  of  employment. 

*2.  An  individual,  cumulative  card,  providing  for  the 
record  of  the  complete  school  career  of  every  child ;  showing 
name,  place  and  date  of  birth,  name  and  occupation  of  par- 
ent or  guardian,  residence,  date  of  admission  to  school, 
length  of  attendance,  and  date  of  promotion  from  each  grade 
or  class,  condition  of  health,  character  of  conduct  and  qual- 
ity of  accomplishment  in  each  grade  and  class.  (This  is 
the  most  fundamental  of  all  the  school  records.  From  it 
all  the  collective  statistical  exhibits  are  developed.) 

3.  Enrollment,*  promotions,*  non-promotions,  by  grades 
and  schools. 

4.  Distribution  of  enrollment  by  ages  and  grades,  or 
classes.     (Present  report  gives  this  for  elementary  school 
only,  and  for  but  one  term  of  the  year.) 

*5.    Distribution  of  withdrawals  by  ages  and  causes. 
6.    Average  daily  attendance  by  schools. 


Records  and  Reports  399 

*7.  Distribution  of  attendance. 

*8.  Non-promotion  by  age,  grade,  and  cause. 

*9.  Failures  by  studies  and  grades. 

*io.  Beginners,  distributed  by  ages. 

*n.  Graduates,  distributed  by  ages. 

*I2.  Per  capita  attendance  cost  for  each  school  properly 
distributed  among  the  major  items  of  expenditure,  accom- 
panied with  proper  explanation  of  increase  or  decrease  from 
year  to  year. 

*I3.  An  individual,  cumulative  card,  providing  for  the 
record  of  the  teaching  career  of  every  teacher  on  the  staff, 
showing  name,  age,  residence,  education  and  training, 
teaching  assignments,  and  teaching  success,  as  determined 
by  supervisory  and  inspectorial  officers. 

It  is  not  possible  here  to  describe  in  detail  the  method  of 
tabulating  and  summarizing  necessary  for  a  proper  inter- 
pretation of  such  records.1  This  procedure  has  become  a 
highly  specialized  work,  and  to  be  properly  done  should  be 
under  the  care  of  a  specially  trained  individual. 

All  of  the  findings  developed  from  these  records  would 
not  be  printed  each  year.  Some  of  them  would  be  printed 
every  two  years,  some  every  five  years.  When  published, 
however,  they  would  serve  as  definite,  concrete  evidence  of 
the  condition  and  progress  of  the  public  school  system  as  a 
whole  and  of  its  several  parts. 

FINANCIAL   RECORDS 

The  School  Clerk  has  kept  his  records  of  the  financial  re- 
ceipts and  expenditures  in  accordance  with  the  classification 
that  has  come  to  be  regarded  as  the  best  and  most  approved. 

1  For  suggested  forms  of  records  and  other  pertinent  explanations,  reference 
is  made  to  the  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Uniform  Records  and  Reports  of  the 
National  Education  Association,  published  by  the  Bureau  of  Education,  1912. 


400  The  Portland  Survey 

Portland,  therefore,  belongs  to  that  relatively  small  num- 
ber of  cities  able  to  make  their  financial  report  to  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education  according  to  the  form  and 
classification  desired.  A  brief  explanation  of  the  proced- 
ure of  the  School  Clerk's  office,  as  regards  financial  opera- 
tions, is  conclusive  of  the  mechanical  effectiveness  which 
has  been  established  there. 


RECOMMENDATION 

It  is  recommended  that  there  be  established  in  connection 
with  the  office  of  Superintendent  of  Schools  a  division  to 
be  known  as  the  Division  of  Statistics  and  Educational  In- 
vestigation, to  be  under  the  charge  of  a  director  whose  chief 
function  will  be  to  gather,  in  proper  form,  all  the  necessary 
data  concerning  the  operation  of  the  school  system  that  will 
enable  the  administrative  and  supervisory  staff  both  to  eval- 
uate the  practices  and  methods  of  the  schools  and  to  give 
to  the  people  of  the  community  a  reasonable  basis  for  an 
intelligent  appreciation  of  the  true  worth  of  the  results 
being1  obtained  in  and  through  the  schools. 

REPORT  AND  RECORD  FORMS  IN  USE 

At  our  request,  the  School  Clerk  and  the  Superintendent 
of  Schools  furnished  us  with  copies  of  all  the  various 
statistical,  record,  and  routine  blanks  used  in  the  educational 
and  business  departments.  These  are  enumerated  in  the 
following  lists : 

i.  Used  by  the  Superintendent  of  Schools: 

1.  Application  blank  for  new  teachers. 

2.  Information  for  applicants  for  teachers'  positions. 

3.  Letter  of  inquiry:  Teachers'  references. 

4.  Teachers'  certificates. 

5.  Teachers'  life  certificates. 

6.  Teachers'  reapplication  blank. 

7.  Teachers'  request  for  change  of  work. 

8.  Visit  report  of  teachers. 


Records  and  Reports  401 

9.  Teachers'  final  certificate  of  completed  service. 

10.  Form  for  teachers'  names,  grades,  and  addresses. 

11.  Data  for  teachers'  pay  roll. 

12.  Principals'  record  of  teachers'  attendance  and  tardiness. 

13.  Census  form. 

14.  Superintendent's  transfer  for  pupils. 

15.  Principals'  transfer  for  pupils. 

16.  Principals'  suspension  notice  to  parents. 

17.  Principals'  suspension  notice  to  Superintendent. 

18.  Pupil's  reinstatement  blank. 

19.  Book  list  and  price  list  —  elementary  schools. 

20.  Book  list  for  high  schools. 

21.  Pupil's  report  card  for  primary  grades. 

22.  Pupil's  report  card  for  grammar  grades. 

23.  Pupil's  report  card  for  high  schools. 

24.  Teacher's  monthly  report  of  attendance  of  pupils. 

25.  Nativity  of  pupils. 

26.  Teacher's  semiannual  report  for  promotion  of  pupils. 

27.  Result  sheet  (i.  e.,  report  of  pupils'  monthly  standings). 

28.  Report  on  number  of  pupils  belonging  to  various  classes. 

29.  Principal's  annual  report  of  enrollment  and  attendance. 

30.  Desk  seating  report. 

31.  Annual  summary  of  enrollment  and  attendance. 

32.  Fire  drill  report. 

33.  Requisition  blank  for  principals. 

2.  Used  by  the  Truant  Officer: 

1.  Truant  Officer's  record  (of  individual  cases  investigated). 

2.  Special  report  by  principal  of  pupil  to  Truant  Officer. 

3.  Extract  from  Oregon  School  Laws,  1911  —  insanitary  pupils. 

4.  Extracts  from  Oregon  Compulsory  Education  Laws  and  Child  Labor 

Laws  for  information  of  parents. 

5.  Extract  from  Child  Labor  Laws. 

6.  Legal  notice  by  Truant  Officer  to  parents. 

7.  Physician's  certificate  —  compulsory  education. 

3.  Used  by  the  Manual  Training  Departments: 

1.  Time  report  of  instructor. 

2.  Monthly  report  of  pupil's  work. 

3.  Monthly  report  to  principal  of  pupil's  attendance. 

4.  Equipment  report. 

4.  Used  by  the  Superintendent  of  Property: 

1.  Register  of  drawings. 

2.  Daily  time  report. 

3.  Drawing  receipt. 


4O2  The  Portland  Survey 

4.  Progress  report. 

5.  Form  of  agreement  with  contractors. 

6.  Cost  record  —  plans,  specifications,  and  superintendence. 

7.  Announcement  and  instructions  to  bidders. 

8.  Standard  form  of  contract. 

9.  Shop  order. 

10.  Directions  for  care  of  blackboards. 

5.  Used  by  the  Purchasing  Agent: 

1.  Stock  card. 

2.  Receipt  for  goods  from  stock  room. 

3.  Receipt  for  goods  from  stores. 

4.  Requisition  for  purchases. 

5.  Order  for  supplies. 

6.  Order  tor  repair  material. 

7.  Emergency  order. 

8.  Store  room  daily  report  to  clerk. 

6.  Used  by  the  School  Clerk: 

1.  Employees'  pay  roll,  distribution  of  charges. 

2.  Employees'  pay  roll,  receipt  for  salary. 

3.  Employees'  daily  report. 

4.  Janitor's  reapplication. 

5.  Janitor's  application  (new). 

6.  Janitor's  notice  of  election. 

7.  Janitor's  letter  of  inquiry  regarding  qualifications,  etc. 

8.  Janitor's  data  for  pay  roll. 

9.  Insurance,  record  of  agents. 

10.  Insurance,  record  of  companies. 

11.  Special  form  to  be  attached  to  insurance  policies. 

12.  Insurance  application. 

13.  Election:  Notice  to  judges  and  clerks. 

14.  Election:  Acceptance  of  judges  and  clerks. 

15.  Election:  Notice  of  place. 

16.  Election:  Acceptance  of  place. 

17.  Election:  Tally  sheet. 

1 8.  Election:  Instructions  to  judges  and  clerks. 

19.  Census,  instructions. 

20.  Census,  summary. 

21.  Census  form. 

22.  Teachers:  Notice  of  election  (day). 

23.  Teachers:  Notice  of  election  (night). 

24.  Teacher's  acceptance. 

25.  Teacher's  excuse  for  absence  or  tardiness. 

26.  Teacher's  notice  of  receipt  of  excuse. 
37.  Supervisor's  registration  (service)  card. 


Records  and  Reports  403 

28.  Record  of  certification  and  service  —  teacher's. 

29.  Notice  of  retirement  fund. 

30.  Report  of  teachers'  certificates. 

31.  Permit  by  parents  for  use  of  machinery  by  pupils  in  manual  training 

and  trade  schools. 

32.  Teachers'  monthly  pay  roll. 

33.  Superintendent's  certification  of  pay  roll. 

34.  Order  for  teachers'  salaries. 

35.  School  property  reports  (monthly). 

36.  Supply  returns. 

37.  Tuition  notice. 

38.  Pay  roll  claim  sheet. 

39.  Bill  head. 

40.  Letter  accompanying  voucher. 

41.  Letter  accompanying  draft. 

42.  Voucher. 

43.  Nature  of  claim  allowed. 

44.  Nature  of  board  and  committee  meetings. 

45.  Program  —  school  directors'  meeting. 

46.  Committee  report. 

47.  Clerk's  monthly  financial  statement. 

48.  Directory  —  Board  of  School  Directors. 

49.  Daily  cash  statement. 

50.  Principals'  oral  reports. 

51.  Garbage  receipt. 

52.  Standard  form  of  contractor's  bond. 

53.  Indemnifying  bond. 

54.  Option. 

55.  Depository  bond. 

56.  Auditing  committee's  monthly  report. 

Limitations  of  time  have  prevented  any  complete  and 
detailed  critical  examination  of  those  forms  from  the  busi- 
ness department. 


CHAPTER    XVII1 
,  COST    OF   THE    SYSTEM    OF   EDUCATION 

A    FUNDAMENTAL    ASSUMPTION    AS    TO    PORTLAND'S    ATTI- 
TUDE TOWARD  THE  COST  OF  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

THE  members  of  the  Survey  staff  have,  from  the  first, 
assumed  that  what  the  taxpayers  and  citizens  of  Port- 
land were  most  interested  in  was  not,  primarily,  how  they 
could  reduce  the  present  expenses  for  education,  but  how 
they  could  obtain  a  better  school  system  for  the  money  they 
now  spend,  or  for  such  additional  and  reasonable  sums  as 
it  might  seem  wise  to  spend.  We  have  not  for  a  moment 
assumed  that  a  community  composed  of  such  an  intelligent 
class  of  people  as  is  found  in  Portland  would  be  short- 
sighted enough  to  want  to  stop  the  development  of  their 
schools  in  order  to  try  to  save  a  little  money.  The  economic 
loss  to  the  city  by  the  deflection  of  people  of  means  and 
intelligence  to  the  cities  of  Washington  and  California, 
which  would  inevitably  follow  the  adoption  of  such  a  plan, 
would  greatly  outweigh  any  possible  saving  which  might 
be  effected.  The  surest  means  by  which  the  city  may  retain 
its  present  high  standing  and  its  position  of  supremacy  in 
its  territory  is  for  it  to  spend  money  liberally  to  keep  its 
schools  abreast  of  the  changing  educational  needs.  This  the 
Survey  staff  has  from  the  first  assumed  to  be  the  wish  of 
the  people,  and  such  a  purpose  has  also  been  assumed  to 
have  been  the  actuating  motive  with  the  taxpayers  of  the 
district,  assembled  in  meeting,  when  they  adopted  the  reso- 
lution authorizing  and  creating  the  school  survey.  The 
members  of  the  Survey  staff  have  kept  this  belief  in  mind 

1  Chapter  XVII  was  written  by  the  Director  of  the  Survey.  —  EDITOR. 

404 


Cost  of  System  of  Education  405 

in  all  their  consideration  of  the  problem  and  in  making  the 
numerous  constructive  suggestions  contained  in  the  differ- 
ent chapters  of  this  report. 

In  a  number  of  the  preceding  chapters  the  question  of  ad- 
ditional costs  has  been  considered,  and  it  does  not  seem 
necessary  further  to  expand  the  treatment  here.  To  these 
preceding  chapters,  therefore,  the  reader  is  referred  for  a 
more  detailed  statement  as  to  needs  and  reasons.  Only 
summaries  will  be  presented  here,  and  this  chapter  will  be 
devoted  to  a  consideration  of  only  two  questions :  ( I )  What 
is  the  relative  rank  of  the  district  now  in  the  matter  of  school 
expenditures?  (2)  Can  the  district  reasonably  afford  to 
spend  more  money  on  its  schools  than  it  now  does  ? 


RELATIVE  RANK  OF  THE  DISTRICT  IN  SCHOOL  EXPENDITURES 
AND    PER   CAPITA   COSTS 

Returning  to  the  reports  of  the  U.  S.  Census  Bureau,  for 
the  1910  census  of  the  United  States,  used  at  length  in  com- 
piling the  tables  given  in  Chapter  VI,  and  taking  the  same 
37  American  cities  used  there  (see  Table  IV,  page  93), 
which  in  1910  had  between  100,000  and  350,000  inhabit- 
ants, and  compiling  the  costs  for  education  for  each  of 
these,  we  get  the  following  tables.  These  show  the  com- 
parative costs  for  the  maintenance  of  schools  for  the  differ- 
ent cities  and  Portland's  position  in  the  list. 


Comparative  Per  Capita  Costs 

The  first  of  these  tables  shows  the  rank  of  the  city  in  the 
cost  for  education,  measured  per  capita  of  the  total  popula- 
tion. Portland  is  here  seen  to  be  in  a  middle  position,  there 
being  18  cities  which  spend  more,  and  18,  of  which  seven 
are  southern,  which  spend  less.  The  per  capita  expenditure 
in  Portland  is  also  seen  to  be  below  the  average  for  all  cities 
of  30,000  or  over  in  the  United  States. 


406  The  Portland  Survey 

TABLE  XXIV 

EXPENDITURES  FOR  SCHOOLS  PER  CAPITA  OF  THE  TOTAL  POPULATION 

1.  Washington,  D.  C $6.27 

2.  Newark,  N.  J 5.79 

3.  Denver,  Colo 5.49 

4.  Spokane,  Wash 5.46 

5.  Worcester,  Mass 5.39 

6.  Minneapolis,  Minn 5.35 

7.  Seattle,  Wash 5.29 

8.  New  Haven,  Conn 5.12 

9.  Cambridge,  Mass 5.01 

10.  Omaha,  Neb 4.74 

11.  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 4.56 

12.  Rochester,  N.  Y 4.51 

13.  Providence,  R.  I 4.51 

14.  Grand  Rapids,  Mich 4.48 

15.  Toledo,  Ohio 4.46 

16.  Dayton,  Ohio 4.32 

17.  Kansas  City,  Mo 4.31 

1 8.  Indianapolis,  Ind 4.30 

19.  PORTLAND,  ORE 4.29 

20.  Scranton,  Penn. 4.27 

21.  Columbus,  Ohio 4.21 

22.  Jersey  City,  N.  J 4.14 

23.  Paterson,  N.  J 4.09 

24.  St.  Paul,  Minn. 4.04 

25.  Oakland,  Cal 4.03 

26.  Albany,  N.  Y. 3.98 

27.  Fall  River,  Mass 3.95 

28.  Lowell,  Mass 3.89 

29.  Los  Angeles,  Cal 3.77 

30.  Louisville,  Ky 3.38 

31.  Bridgeport,  Conn. 3.01 

32.  New  Orleans,  La 2.89 

33.  Memphis,  Tenn. 2.88 

34.  Nashville,  Tenn 2.62 

35.  Richmond,  Va 2.34 

36.  Atlanta,  Ga 2.32 

37.  Birmingham,  Ala 2.07 

Average,  all  cities  30,000  or  over 4.62 

Since  some  cities  have  many  children  in  the  total  popula- 
tion and  others  few  (see  Table  VIII,  page  102),  the  per- 


Cost  of  System  of  Education  407 

TABLE  XXV1 

COST  FOR  SCHOOLS  FOR  EACH  PERSON  IN  THE  TOTAL  POPULATION  FIFTEEN 
YEARS  OF  AGE  OR  OVER 

1.  Washington,  D.  C $8.29 

2.  Newark,  N.  J 8.23 

3.  Denver,  Colo 7.52 

4.  Worcester,  Mass 7.39 

5.  New  Haven,  Conn 7.15 

6.  Spokane,  Wash 7.11 

7.  Minneapolis,  Minn 6.98 

8.  Cambridge,  Mass 6.94 

9.  Seattle,  Wash 6.60 

10.  Omaha,  Neb 6.39 

it.  Scranton,  Pa 6.29 

12.  Grand  Rapids,  Mich 6.14 

13.  Providence,  R.  1 6.11 

14.  Toledo,  Ohio 6.07 

15.  Syracuse,  N.  Y 6.02 

16.  Rochester,  N.  Y 5.96 

17.  Jersey  City,  N.  J 5.96 

18.  Fall  River,  Mass 5.84 

19.  Paterson,  N.  J 5.77 

20.  Dayton,  Ohio 5.72 

21.  Indianapolis,  Ind 5.61 

22.  Kansas  City,  Mo 5.47 

23.  Columbus,  Ohio 5.45 

24.  St.  Paul,  Minn. 5.38 

25.  Lowell,  Mass 5.31 

26.  PORTLAND,  ORE 5.28 

27.  Oakland,  Cal 5-20 

28.  Albany,  N.  Y 5.14 

29.  Los  Angeles,  CaL 4.72 

30.  Louisville,  Ky 4.51 

31.  Bridgeport,  Conn 4.14 

32.  New  Orleans,  La 4-°8 

33.  Memphis,  Tenn 3-75 

34.  Nashville,  Tenn 3-59 

35.  Atlanta,  Ga.  . 3-20 

36.  Richmond,  Va 3-1? 

37.  Birmingham,  Ala 2.92 

Average,  all  cities  30,000  or  over 6.33 

i  Calculated  from  Tables  XXIV  and  VIII. 


408  The  Portland  Survey 

centage  of  the  total  population  which  is  under  fifteen  years 
of  age  varying,  for  the  37  cities  studied,  from  18.8  per  cent, 
for  Portland  to  32.3  per  cent,  for  Fall  River,  Massachusetts, 
with  an  average  of  27.3  per  cent,  for  all  cities  in  the  United 
States,  the  above  table  is  recalculated,  in  the  one  which  fol- 
lows, to  show  the  comparative  cost  of  schools  for  each  of 
the  37  cities  for  each  person  in  the  total  population,  after 
excluding  all  persons  under  15  years  of  age  from  the  count. 
Due  to  its  small  number  of  children,  Portland  now  drops 
from  nineteenth  to  twenty-sixth  in  the  list.  Of  the  n 
cities  which  spend  less,  two  are  rich  Western  cities,  one  is  a 
poor  Eastern  city,  and  six  are  Southern  cities. 

The  table  which  follows  next  makes  the  same  recalcula- 
tion to  determine  the  cost,  measured  now  only  for  each 
adult  male  (21  years  or  over)  in  the  total  population,  for 
each  of  the  37  cities.  Measured  on  this  basis,  Portland,  on 
account  of  its  large  excess  of  adult  males  (see  Table  VI, 
page  98),  now  drops  to  thirty-first  place  in  the  matter  of 
expenditure  for  schools,  five  Southern  cities  and  one  poor 
Eastern  city  alone  spending  less  per  adult  male. 

These  three  tables  show  how  relatively  lightly  the  expense 
for  education  rests  on  Portland.  Good  schools,  the  best 
schools  in  fact,  could  be  maintained  in  Portland  with  ease. 
The  rank  of  Portland,  in  per  capita  expense,  low  as  it  is, 
is  still  much  higher  than  it  would  be  if  any  allowance  were 
made  for  the  much  higher  salaries  paid  teachers  in  the  West. 
If  Portland  paid  as  low  teachers'  salaries  as  the  Eastern 
cities  do,  it  probably  would  go  to  the  bottom  of  the  list  in 
comparative  expenditures. 


Cost  Per  Pupil  Educated 

The  low  per  capita  expenditures,  shown  in  Tables  XXV 
and  XXVI,  are  in  large  measure  due  to  the  extremely 
small  number  of  children  of  school  age  in  the  Portland  dis- 
trict, and  not  to  a  low  expense  per  child  educated.  In  fact, 


Cost  of  System  of  Education  409 


TABLE  XXVI » 
COST  FOR  SCHOOLS  FOR  EACH  ADULT  MALE 

1.  Newark,  N.  J $20.75 

2.  Washington,  D.  C 20.03 

3.  Cambridge,  Mass *7-34 

4.  Worcester,  Mass 17.28 

5.  New  Haven,  Conn 16.89 

6.  Denver,  Colo 16.29 

7.  Minneapolis,  Minn iS-33 

8.  Scranton,  Pa 14.98 

9.  Fall  River,  Mass 14-95 

10.  Grand  Rapids,  Mich 14.69 

11.  Providence,  R.  1 14.64 

12.  Toledo,  Ohio 14-25 

13.  Spokane,  Wash 14.15 

14.  Rochester,  N.  Y 14.14 

15.  Syracuse,  N.  Y 14.00 

16.  Paterson,  N.  J 13.91 

17.  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 13.71 

18.  Omaha,  Neb 13.68 

19.  Lowell,  Mass 13-23 

20.  Dayton,  Ohio 13.17 

21.  Indianapolis,  Ind 13.10 

22.  Columbus,  Ohio 12.57 

23.  Seattle,  Wash 12-33 

24.  Kansas  City,  Mo 12.25 

25.  Albany,  N.  Y 12.17 

26.  St.  Paul,  Minn 12.03 

27.  Oakland,  Cal 11.23 

28.  Louisville,  Ky 11.19 

29.  Los  Angeles,  Cal 10.47 

30.  New  Orleans,  La 10.07 

31.  PORTLAND,  ORE 10.00 

32.  Nashville,  Tenn 9.39 

33.  Bridgeport,  Conn 9.32 

34.  Memphis,  Tenn 8.52 

35.  Atlanta,  Ga 8.07 

36.  Richmond,  Va 8.01 

37.  Birmingham,  Ala 6-74 

Average,  all  cities  30,000  or  over     ....  14.76 
1  Calculated  from  Tables  XXIV  and  VI. 


410  The  Portland  Survey 

in  this  respect,  the  city  averages  very  well  with  other  West- 
ern cities,  as  is  shown  in  Tables  XXVII  and  XXVIII. 

In  attempting  to  calculate  Tables  XXVII  and  XXVIII, 
one  is  met  with  an  important  difficulty  in  obtaining  data.  Up 
to  a  very  few  years  ago  there  were  about  as  many  systems 
of  bookkeeping  and  calculating  costs  in  use  as  there  were 
city-school  systems.  Less  than  three  years  ago  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  the  Census  and  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Education  agreed  upon  certain  standard  forms  for  city- 
school  accounting,  and  these  forms  have  since  been  adopted 
by  quite  a  number  of  our  American  cities.  Naturally  more 
small  than  large  cities  have  adopted  the  new  uniform  plan, 
because  the  small  cities  have  found  it  easier  -to  rearrange 
their  bookkeeping.  Of  the  37  cities  so  far  used  for  com- 
parisons, only  about  one  half  have  adopted  these  new  forms 
and  have  rearranged  their  accounting  methods  accordingly. 

TABLE  XXVTl1 
COST  FOR  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  PER  PUPIL  m  AVERAGE  DAILY  ATTENDANCE  * 

Pueblo,  Colo $34.30 

Kansas  City,  Mo 34.88 

Omaha,  Neb 35-56 

Tacoma,  Wash 37.07 

Denver,  Colo 38.12 

San  Jos6,  Cal 38.16 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 41.79 

PORTLAND,  ORE 41.95 

Minneapolis,  Minn 42.31 

Oakland,  Cal 42.53 

San  Francisco,  Cal 42.82 

San  Diego,  Cal.2 42.91 

Seattle,  Wash 43.92 

Spokane,  Wash 44-33 

Los  Angeles,  Cal.1 50.38 

Berkeley,  Cal.J 51.72 

1  Calculated  from  data  given  in  the  1912  Report  U.  S.  Commissioner  of 
Education,  Vol.  II. 

2  Information  obtained  direct,  and  approximately  correct    Does  not  use 
uniform  accounting  forms. 

1  This  city  maintains  a  complete  system  of  intermediate  schools. 


Cost  of  System  of  Education  411 

TABLE  XXVIII1 

COST  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  PER  PUPIL  IN  AVERAGE  DAILY  ATTENDANCE  2 

Per  Cent,  of  Total 

r..  Cost  per  Pupil       Attendance  in 

per  Year          High  Schools 

Berkeley,  Cal $66.11  25 

Tacoma,  Wash 71.80  15 

Omaha,  Neb 75-n  Ir 

PORTLAND,  ORE 76.42  12 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 78.89  9 

San  Jos6,  Cal 80.33  2I 

Oakland,  Cal 80.94  13 

Kansas  City,  Mo 82.30  14 

Denver,  Colo 82.78  13 

Minneapolis,  Minn 84.83  14 

.    Pueblo,  Colo 86.73  I2 

Spokane,  Wash 92.56  14 

Seattle,  Wash 101.14  16 

San  Diego,  Cal 104.06  15 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 120.07  1S-IS 

For  that  reason  a  comparison  of  costs  between  all  of  the 
37  is  impossible. 

Still  more,  due  to  the  larger  salaries  paid  both  teachers 
and  janitors  in  the  West,  and  the  larger  cost  of  both  mate- 
rials and  service  needed  for  annual  operation  and  mainte- 
nance, a  comparison  of  costs  —  per  pupil  educated  —  be- 
tween two  such  cities  as  Birmingham,  Alabama,  or  Fall 
River,  Massachusetts,  with  their  low  teachers'  salaries  and 
large  school  classes,  and  Portland,  Oregon,  with  its  small 
classes  and  relatively  high  salaries  for  elementary  teachers, 
is  not  of  much  value,  because  two  entirely  different  types  of 
school  systems  are  compared. 

Most  of  the  Western  cities,  where  maintenance  costs  are 
somewhat  the  same,  have  adopted  the  new  system  of  ac- 
counting and  report  separate  costs,  for  different  items  and 
for  different  kinds  of  schools,  to  the  United  States  Commis- 
sioner of  Education.  Portland  has  adopted  this  system  of 

1  Calculated  from  same  source  as  Table  XXVII. 
Does  not  include  night  schools  or  vacation  schools. 


2 


412  The  Portland  Survey 

accounting,  so  that  comparisons  of  cost  between  most  of  the 
Western  cities,  for  both  elementary  and  secondary  schools, 
are  now  possible.  Such  comparisons  are  made  in  the  two 
following  tables,  using  Western  cities  of  25,000  or  more 
inhabitants  only,  and  using  figures  published  last  year  for 
all. 

The  costs  for  elementary  education  in  Portland  are  thus 
seen  to  be  about  what  other  Western  cities  average,  while  the 
costs  for  secondary  education  are  lower.  This  we  should 
expect  from  the  discussion  of  teachers'  salaries,  in  Chap- 
ter V. 

Size  of  Classes  as  Determining  Costs 

These  figures  do  not  reveal  the  whole  truth  of  the  matter, 
however,  as  the  cost  per  pupil  educated  in  the  elementary 
schools  varies  much,  according  to  other  factors  than  teach- 
ers' salaries.  The  most  important  of  these  is  the  average 
number  of  pupils  in  each  classroom.  Portland's  elementary 
school  classes  are  smaller  than  those  in  all  but  two  or  three 
other  cities  in  the  above  list.  This  is  a  feature  of  the  ad- 
ministrative organization  of  the  school  system  which  is  to 
be  greatly  commended,  and  the  size  of  classes  in  Portland 
ought  not  to  be  increased.  Thirty  children  make  a  class 
about  as  large  as  a  teacher  can  teach  well,  and  the  pres- 
ent Portland  classes  of  35  to  38  are  still  a  little  large.  The 
classes  in  Portland  are  not  too  small;  they  are  merely  too 
large  elsewhere. 

The  cost  per  pupil  per  year,  however,  is  materially  in- 
creased when  such  small  classes  are  maintained  over  what 
would  be  the  case  if  45  or  50  children  were  given  to  each 
teacher,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  following,  calculated  on 
a  basis  of  a  cost  of  $1,500  per  year  per  classroom : 

Size  of  Class  Cost  per  pupil  per  Year 

30  pupils $50.00 

35      "       42-86 

40  37-50 

45  33-33 

50      "       30.00 


Cost  of  System  of  Education  413 

Reasonable  Per  Capita  Costs 

As  many  of  the  cities  given  in  Table  XXVII  teach  their 
children  in  classes  of  45  or  more,  the  comparison  is  not 
so  favorable  to  Portland  as  might  at  first  seem.  To  pro- 
vide the  special  classes  and  schools  needed  to  meet  well  the 
educational  needs  of  the  city,  as  pointed  out  in  Chapters  XI 
and  XIV,  Portland  ought  to  spend,  considering  the  size  of 
classes  maintained,  close  to  $50  per  pupil  in  average  daily 
attendance  per  year.  The  intermediate  schools,  recom- 
mended in  Chapters  IX  and  XI,  ought  to  cost  about  $70 
per  pupil  per  year.  The  high  schools,  too,  are  costing  too 
little.  The  teachers  are  not  paid  a  high  enough  maximum 
to  retain  the  best,  and  they  are  also  required  to  teach  too 
many  periods  a  day.  To  provide  the  kind  of  educational 
conditions  best  suited  to  the  needs  of  such  a  city  as  Port- 
land, with  the  recommended  additions  to  the  high  schools, 
a  cost  of  $90  to  $100  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance 
in  the  high  schools  is  not  too  much. 

These  estimates  would  include  the  additions  recommended 
in  the  preceding  chapters,  and  would  add  somewhere  from 
20  to  25  per  cent,  to  the  present  annual  cost  for  maintenance 
and  instruction.  This  would  add  about  one  mill  to  the 
school  tax  of  the  district.  Such  additions,  with  the  right 
kind  of  administrative  organization  and  leadership,  would 
soon  give  Portland  a  thoroughly  good  school  system,  one 
which  would  answer  the  needs  of  the  city  for  some  years 
to  come. 


CAN    THE    DISTRICT    REASONABLY    AFFORD    TO    SPEND    THIS 
ADDED  SUM  ON  ITS  SCHOOLS 

To  show  that  the  Portland  school  district  can  afford  such 
an  addition,  and  afford  it  with  ease,  Tables  XXIX  and 
XXX  are  introduced. 

Table  XXIX  shows  the  real  wealth,  for  each  of  the  37 
cities  studied,  which  lies  behind  each  dollar  spent  for  the 


414  The  Portland  Survey 

TABLE  XXIX1 

REAL  WEALTH  BEHIND  EACH  DOLLAR  SPENT  FOR  SCHOOL  MAINTENANCE 

1.  Atlanta,  Ga $559.00 

2.  Los  Angeles,  Cal 538.00 

3.  Richmond,  Va, 536.00 

4.  Birmingham,  Ala 479.00 

5.  PORTLAND,  ORE 456.00 

6.  Memphis,  Tenn 449.00 

7.  Indianapolis,  Ind 408.00 

8.  St.  Paul,  Minn 407.00 

9.  Spokane,  Wash 370.00 

10.  Seattle,  Wash 364.00 

11.  Oakland,  Cal 354-oo 

12.  Omaha,  Neb 352.00 

13.  Nashville,  Tenn 350.00 

14.  Louisville,  Ky 326.00 

15.  New  Orleans,  La 314.00 

1 6.  Minneapolis,  Minn. 294.00 

17.  Kansas  City,  Mo 280.00 

18.  Bridgeport,  Conn 276.00 

19.  Providence,  R.  1 256.00 

20.  Albany,  N.  Y 234.00 

21.  Denver,  Colo 231.00 

22.  Rochester,  N.  Y 225.00 

23.  Columbus,  Ohio 221.00 

24.  Jersey  City,  N.  J 218.00 

25.  Scranton,  Pa 216.00 

26.  Washington,  D.  C 212.00 

27.  Dayton,  Ohio 208.00 

28.  Grand  Rapids,  Mich 207.00 

29.  Cambridge,  Mass 204.00 

30.  Syracuse,  N.  Y 202.00 

31.  Fall  River,  Mass. 196.00 

32.  Lowell,  Mass 194.00 

33.  Paterson,  N.  J 185.00 

34.  New  Haven,  Conn 185.00 

35.  Toledo,  Ohio 184.00 

36.  Worcester,  Mass 180.00 

37.  Newark,  N.  J 165.00 

yearly  maintenance  of  schools  by  the  city,  and  Table  XXX 

shows  the  rate  of  tax  in  mills  required  to  raise  this  amount 
for   maintenance,   based   on   real   wealth    (see   Table   X, 

>  A  combination  of  Tables  XXIV  and  X. 


Cost  of  System  of  Education  415 

TABLE  XXX1 

COMPARATIVE  RATES  OF  TAX  REQUIRED  FOR  SCHOOL  MAINTENANCE  (IN  MILLS) 
BASED  ON  THE  REAL  WEALTH  OF  CITIES 

1.  Newark,  N.  J 00606 

2.  Toledo,  Ohio 00543 

3.  New  Haven,  Conn 00541 

4.  Paterson,  N.  J.  '. 00541 

5.  Lowell,  Mass 00515 

6.  Fall  River,  Mass 00510 

7.  Worcester,  Mass 00505 

8.  Syracuse,  N.  Y 00495 

9.  Cambridge,  Mass 00490 

10.  Grand  Rapids,  Mich 00483 

11.  Washington,  D.  C 00471 

12.  Scranton,  Pa 00463 

13.  Jersey  City,  N.  J 00459 

14.  Columbus,  Ohio 00452 

15.  Rochester,  N.  Y.   .    . 00444 

16.  Denver,  Colo.     .    .    .  1 00433 

17.  Albany,  N.  Y 00427 

18.  Dayton,  Ohio 00421 

19.  Providence,  R.  1 00391 

20.  Bridgeport,  Conn 00362 

21.  Kansas  City,  Mo 00357 

22.  Minneapolis,  Minn 00340 

23.  New  Orleans,  La 00315 

24.  Louisville,  Ky 00307 

25.  Nashville,  Tenn 00285 

26.  Omaha,  Neb 00284 

27.  Oakland,  Cal 00283 

28.  Seattle,  Wash 00275 

29.  Spokane,  Wash 00270 

30.  Indianapolis,  Ind 00245 

31.  St.  Paul,  Minn 00244 

32.  Memphis,  Tenn 00222 

33.  PORTLAND,  ORE 00219 

34.  Birmingham,  Ala 00209 

35.  Richmond,  Va 00186 

36.  Los  Angeles,  Cal 00184 

37.  Atlanta,  Ga 00180 

page  107),  and  assuming  no  delinquencies  in  taxes.    While 
taxes  are  based  on  assessed  wealth  and  not  on  actual  wealth, 

1  A  combination  of  Tables  XXIV  and  X. 


4i 6  The  Portland  Survey 

the  great  variations  in  the  rate  of  assessment  make  real 
wealth  the  only  proper  basis  of  comparison  between  cities. 
That  Portland  can  afford  the  estimated  needed  increases, 
these  tables  show,  without  question.  Portland  could  even 
double  its  expenses  for  yearly  school  maintenance,  and  still 
pay  a  rate  of  tax  for  schools,  based  on  real  wealth,  which 
would  be  less  than  that  paid  by  almost  every  Eastern  city. 
These  Eastern  cities,  with  their  large  school  populations, 
large  foreign  elements,  much  lower  per  capita  wealth,  and 
high  taxes,  are  paying  high  rates  of  school  tax  to  try  to 
do  what  Portland  can  do  with  ease,  and  on  a  much  lower 
rate  of  school  tax.  These  Eastern  cities  pay  lower  salaries 
to  their  elementary  teachers,  teach  their  children  in  larger 
classes,  are  compelled  to  build  their  school  buildings  by 
bonding,  and  have  to  maintain  many  half -day  classes,  be- 
cause they  cannot  erect  buildings  enough;  while  Portland, 
on  less  than  half  the  real  tax  they  pay,  pays  relatively  good 
salaries  to  its  elementary  teachers,  teaches  its  children  in 
classes  much  nearer  the  proper  size,  pays  for  nearly  all  its 
school  buildings  the  year  they  are  erected,  and  has  not  a  half- 
day  class  in  the  entire  city.  On  the  contrary,  the  district  has 
a  number  of  vacant  rooms. 


PORTLAND  S   EDUCATIONAL   OPPORTUNITY 

Excepting  probably  only  Los  Angeles,  no  other  large  city 
in  the  United  States  has  such  an  excellent  opportunity  to 
make  for  itself  a  school  system  which  shall  be  second  to 
none  in  the  country,  and  one  the  excellence  of  which  will 
make  Portland  known  educationally  all  over  the  United 
States  and  will  attract  to  it  many  new  residents  of  a  desir- 
able class.  It  will  require  more  money,  to  be  sure,  and  a 
little  higher  tax  for  schools,  but  not  a  large  amount,  while 
the  returns  from  the  investment  —  educational,  social, 
moral,  and  commercial  —  will  be  very  large.  The  commer- 
cial returns  might  well  be  mentioned  first,  instead  of  last. 
Los  Angeles  has  utilized  the  opportunity  which  her  wealth 


Cost  of  System  of  Education  417 

and  the  character  of  her  population  have  given  her,  and 
has  developed  one  of  the  very  best  school  systems,  large  or 
small,  to  be  found  anywhere  in  the  United  States.  There 
is  little  question  but  that  the  present  social  and  industrial 
prosperity  of  the  city  is  in  no  small  measure  due  to  the  very 
broad  scope  and  the  very  high  excellence  maintained 
throughout  the  school  system.  Portland,  by  reason  of  its 
very  great  wealth,  the  high  character  of  its  people,  the  free- 
dom (practically  so)  of  the  school  district  from  debt,  and 
the  good  foundation  upon  which  to  build,  could,  in  a  few 
years,  and  with  but  a  small  increase  in  the  tax  rate  for  main- 
tenance —  if  under  wise,  intelligent,  and  capable  leader- 
ship —  easily  become  the  educational  rival  of  Los  Angeles, 
and  her  schools  would  acquire  a  reputation,  as  those  of  Los 
Angeles  have  done,  throughout  the  whole  United  States. 
Practically  no  other  large  city  in  the  entire  United  States 
has  today  so  great  an  opportunity  for  educational  leader- 
ship almost  within  its  grasp. 

PRESENT   NEEDS   OF   THE   PORTLAND   SCHOOL    SYSTEM 

This  opportunity  the  school  authorities  of  Portland  ought 
to  seize,  for  educational  as  well  as  for  commercial  reasons. 
The  present  school  system  is  much  in  the  condition  of  a 
manufacturing  establishment  which  is  running  on  a  low 
grade  of  efficiency.  The  waste  of  material  is  great  and 
the  output  is  costly  —  in  part  because  the  workmen  in  the 
establishment  are  not  supplied  with  enough  of  the  right  kind 
of  tools ;  in  part  because  the  supervision  of  the  establish- 
ment is  inadequate  and  emphasizes  wrong  points  in  manu- 
facture; but  largely  because  the  establishment  is  not 
equipped  with  enough  large  pieces  of  specialized  machinery, 
located  in  special  shops  or  units  of  the  manufacturing  plant, 
to  enable  it  to  meet  modern  manufacturing  conditions.  The 
plant  needs  more  money  for  operative  costs,  more  specializa- 
tion in  production,  the  utilization  of  present  waste  products, 
and  an  efficiency  manager  to  study  the  business  neetfs,  spe- 


418  The  Portland  Survey 

cialize  it,  and  speed  it  up,  with  a  view  to  saving  wastes,  in- 
creasing the  rate  of  output,  and  greatly  increasing  the  sale 
value  of  the  manufactured  product  in  the  markets  the  fac- 
tory is  trying  to  supply.  On  a  proper  presentation  of  the 
matter  to  the  stockholders  of  any  business  corporation,  they 
would  agree  as  to  the  wisdom  of  increasing  the  working 
capital  20  to  25  per  cent,  if  thereby  the  rate  of  production 
could  be  materially  increased,  the  present  waste  in  working 
materials  largely  obviated,  the  value  of  the  output  probably 
doubled,  and  new  and  profitable  markets  for  present  waste 
products  found.  The  school  business  of  Portland  is,  in  a 
sense,  a  manufactory,  doing  a  three-million-dollar  business 
each  year  in  trying  to  prepare  future  citizens  for  usefulness 
and  efficiency  in  life.  The  taxpayers  are  the  stockholders, 
represented  in  the  management  of  the  business  by  a  board 
of  five  school  directors.  They  should  apply  to  the  manage- 
ment of  their  educational  business  principles  of  efficiency 
similar  to  those  which  control  in  other  forms  of  manufac- 
turing business. 


Appendices 


APPENDIX  A 

A  SUGGESTED  LAW  FOR  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE 
PORTLAND   SCHOOL  DISTRICT 

THE  following  is  a  suggestion  for  a  new  law  for  the  Portland  school  dis- 
trict, based  on  the  needs  presented  in  this  report.    For  the  reasons  for 
the  different  recommendations  made  in  the  following  suggested  law,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  different  chapters  of  the  report  itself. 

AN  ACT  FOR  THE  CREATION  OF  METROPOLITAN  SCHOOL  DISTRICTS,  AND  PRESCRIB- 
ING THEIR  FORM  OF  ORGANIZATION  AND  POWERS 

Sec.  i.  All  first-class  school  districts  now  existing,  which  have  20,000  or 
more  children  of  school  age,  or  which  may  hereafter  come  to  have  such,  are 
hereby  declared  to  be  metropolitan  school  districts,  and  are  to  be  governed  under 
the  provisions  of  this  act,  as  follows: 

Sec.  2.  For  the  government  of  each  such  metropolitan  school  district  a 
Board  of  Education  shall  be  elected  by  the  taxpayers  of  the  district.  A  tax- 
payer shall  be  as  defined  for  school  elections,  in  Sec.  4089  of  Lord's  Oregon 
Laws.  One  member  of  said  Board  of  Education  shall  be  elected  each  year, 
to  serve  for  a  five-year  term.  Boards  of  School  Directors  for  first-class  districts, 
in  office  at  the  time  of  the  enactment  of  this  law,  shall  constitute  the  new 
Boards  of  Education,  and  shall  continue  to  serve  for  the  terms  for  which  they 
were  elected  or  appointed.  In  case  a  vacancy  shall  occur  in  a  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, the  board  shall  appoint  to  fill  the  vacancy,  the  person  so  appointed  to  serve 
until  the  next  annual  school  election,  at  which  time  a  member  shall  be  elected 
to  fill  out  the  unexpired  term  of  the  member. 

All  elections  of  members  of  Boards  of  Education  shall  be  by  ballot,  on  the 
same  day  that  annual  school  district  meetings  are  held  throughout  the  state, 
and  the  provisions  of  the  general  school  laws  relating  to  first-class  districts 
shall  apply  to  such  elections.  Polling  places  shall  be  provided  by  the  Board  of 
Education,  at  a  sufficient  number  of  places  throughout  the  school  district, 
and  be  open  from  i  to  6  P.M.  At  any  such  annual  school  election,  Boards  of 
Education  may,  by  vote,  submit  to  the  taxpayers  any  question  of  educational 
policy  or  finance,  which  to  them  seems  wise,  for  either  direction  or  advice. 

Sec.  3.  Boards  of  Education  for  each  metropolitan  district  shall  reorganize 
each  year,  at  the  first  regular  meeting  after  the  election  of  new  members,  by 
electing  one  of  their  number  as  president  of  the  board,  who  shall  exercise  the 

421 


422  Appendix  A 

usual  functions  of  such  an  officer,  and  who  shall  appoint  all  standing  and 
special  committees  of  the  board. 

Sec.  4.  Boards  of  Education  in  such  districts  shall  elect  the  following  ex- 
ecutive officers: 

1.  A  Superintendent  of  Schools 

2.  A  Business  Manager 

3.  A  Superintendent  of  Properties 

4.  A  Superintendent  of  School  Attendance 

and,  subject  to  the  provisions  of  this  act,  shall  assign  to  them  their  duties,  and 
shall  fix  their  compensations.  Boards  shall  also  have  power  to  create,  from 
time  to  time,  such  other  executive  departments  and  such  subdepartments  as 
the  needs  of  the  schools  may  seem  to  require. 

Sec.  5.  The  Superintendent  of  Schools  shall  be  first  elected  for  a  one-year 
term,  and  thereafter  for  four-year  terms.  Each  new  Superintendent  elected 
shall  have  similar  tenure;  provided,  however,  that,  for  cause,  the  board  may, 
on  thirty  days'  notice,  and  by  a  vote  of  at  least  four  members,  terminate  their 
contract  with  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  to  take  effect  at  the  close  of  any 
school  year.  His  salary  shall  be  as  determined  by  the  board. 

Sec.  6.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  Boards  of  Education  in  metropolitan  districts 
to  determine  all  large  questions  of  policy;  to  adopt  an  annual  budget  of  expen- 
ditures for  the  schools;  to  fix  salaries  of  all  employees;  to  approve  of  all  en- 
largements of  the  work  of  the  schools;  to  approve  all  expenses  incurred;  to 
purchase  new  school  sites,  and  to  order  new  buildings  erected;  to  decide  upon 
all  enlargements  of  school  sites  or  buildings;  and  to  approve  all  contracts 
entered  into.  It  shall,  on  the  other  hand,  be  the  duty  of  the  chief  executive 
officers  of  the  board  to  execute,  under  direction,  the  policies  decided  upon, 
and  to  carry  out  the  improvements,  changes,  or  additions  ordered  made.  It 
shall  be  primarily  the  work  of  the  Boards  of  Education  to  legislate,  decide,  and 
direct;  the  work  of  the  executive  officers  shall  be  to  carry  into  execution  the 
policies  decided  upon  by  the  Boards  of  Education. 

Sec.  7.  The  Superintendent  of  Schools  shall  be  the  chief  executive  officer 
of  the  Board  of  Education,  and  shall  have  general  coordinating  authority  and 
oversight  over  the  work  of  all  executive  officers  and  other  employees  of  the 
school  district.  He  shall  have  full  responsibility  for  the  course  of  study,  the 
selection  of  textbooks  and  supplemental  books,  and  the  selection,  promotion, 
assignment,  transfer,  or  dismissal  of  assistant  superintendents,  special  super- 
visors, principals,  and  teachers,  the  board  acting  in  all  such  matters  only  on 
his  recommendation.  In  case  of  a  conflict  in  authority  between  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Schools  and  any  executive  officer,  the  Superintendent  of  Schools 
shall  decide,  unless  the  Board  of  Education  shall  order  otherwise,  in  each  case. 

Sec.  8.  The  Business  Manager  shall  succeed  to  the  general  functions  now 
exercised  by  the  School  Clerk.  He  shall  be  elected  by  the  board,  who  shall  de- 


Appendix  A  423 

tennine  his  tenure  and  compensation.  He  shall  have  charge  of  all  business 
affairs  of  the  school  department,  subject  to  the  supervision  of  the  board  or  its 
committees;  shall  make  all  purchases,  approve  all  bills,  and,  when  ordered  paid 
by  the  board,  draw  vouchers  for  their  payment;  shall  pay  all  employees  for 
services  performed;  and  shall  act  as  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education.  He 
shall  recommend  all  employees  in  his  department  for  appointment  or  dismissal, 
and  may  suspend  any  such  employee,  for  cause.  He  shall  also  be  responsible 
for  the  successful  conduct  of  the  business  affairs  of  the  school  department;  shall 
give  bonds  for  the  faithful  performance  of  his  duties,  in  such  reasonable  sum 
as  the  Board  of  Education  may  determine;  and  the  books  of  his  office  shall  be 
audited  each  year,  on  order  of  the  Board  of  Education. 

Sec.  9.  The  Boards  of  Education  shall  also  appoint  a  Superintendent  of 
Properties,  and  determine  his  tenure  and  compensation.  The  Superintendent 
of  Properties  shall  have  general  charge  of  the  erection,  repair,  and  care  of  all 
school  properties,  subject  to  the  direction  of  the  board.  The  school  janitors 
shall  be  under  his  direction  and  instruction.  He  shall  recommend  all  employees 
in  his  department  for  appointment  or  dismissal,  and  may  suspend  any  employee, 
for  cause. 

Sec.  10.  The  Boards  of  Education  shall  also  appoint  a  Superintendent  of 
School  Attendance,  and  determine  his  tenure  and  compensation.  He  shall 
have  charge  of  the  enforcement  of  the  compulsory-education  law,  and  those  parts 
of  the  child-labor  law  for  which  attendance  officers  are  responsible;  the  general 
out-of-school  supervision  of  incorrigible  and  delinquent  children;  and  the 
taking  and  care  of  the  school-census  records  of  the  district. 

Sec.  it.  The  Boards  of  Education  shall  have  four  regular  standing  commit- 
tees, each  consisting  of  two  members  and  the  president  of  the  board,  as  follows: 

1.  Financial  affairs 

2.  Buildings  and  sites 

3.  Educational  affairs 

4.  Legal  affairs 

These  committees  shall  consider  such  matters  of  policy,  finance,  and  procedure 
as  may  be  referred  to  them.  Special  committees  may  be  created,  for  special 
purposes,  from  time  to  time,  as  necessities  of  administration  seem  to  require. 

Sec.  12.  Boards  of  Education  in  metropolitan  districts  shall  prepare,  each 
year,  with  the  assistance  of  their  executive  officers,  a  budget  of  expenses  for 
all  departments  of  the  school  system,  for  the  ensuing  year,  and  approve  the 
same.  They  shall  estimate  the  amount  to  be  received  from  the  state  and  county 
school  funds,  sales  of  properties,  or  any  other  sources  of  income,  and  shall  then 
estimate  the  balance  needed  for  each  of  the  following  funds,  viz.: 

1.  Outlays  Fund:    To  cover  the  cost  of  new  buildings,  grounds,  and 
equipment. 

2.  Maintenance  Fund:  To  cover  the  cost  for  salaries,  maintenance,  sup- 
plies, administration,  and  contingent  expenses. 


424  Appendix  A 

On  approval  of  the  annual  budget  by  the  Board  of  Education,  the  board  shall 
then  certify  the  total  amounts,  only,  for  each  of  the  above  funds  to  the  author- 
ities whose  duty  it  is  to  levy  the  school  taxes  for  the  district,  and  said  author- 
ities shall  then  levy  a  rate  on  the  assessed  valuation  of  the  district  which  will 
produce  the  amount  so  certified;  provided,  that  the  same  shall  not  exceed  a  rate 
of  four  mills  for  the  outlays  fund,  or  five  mills  for  the  maintenance  fund;  pro- 
vided, further,  that,  upon  a  statement  of  need,  the  taxpayers  voting  for  school 
board  members  at  the  annual  school  election  may  be  asked  by  the  Board  of  Ed- 
ucation to  approve  of  a  tax  levy  up  to  six  mills  for  the  maintenance  fund.  If 
so  approved  by  a  majority  of  those  voting,  the  Board  of  Education  may  cer- 
tify for  levy  a  tax  for  the  maintenance  fund  up  to  six  mills,  and  the  same  shall 
be  levied  as  directed. 

Sec.  13.  Boards  of  Education  in  metropolitan  districts  shall  establish  stand- 
ards for  the  employment  and  pay  of  teachers,  principals,  and  other  members 
of  the  educational  service.  All  such  persons,  when  first  employed,  shall  serve 
such  a  probationary  period,  not  exceeding  three  years,  as  may  be  determined, 
after  which  they  shall  be  regarded  as  on  indeterminate  contract.  All  persons 
employed  on  indeterminate  contract  shall  be  considered  as  permanently  em- 
ployed, unless  the  Board  of  Education  shall  notify  such  persons,  in  writing, 
not  later  than  May  15,  of  any  year,  that  the  Board  of  Education  desires  to  ter- 
minate the  contract  at  the  close  of  the  school  year,  for  causes  stated  in  the  notice. 
For  the  sufficiency  of  the  reasons  for  so  terminating  a  contract  with  any  em- 
ployee, Boards  of  Education  shall  be  the  sole  judges. 

Sec.  14.  Boards  of  Education  in  districts  of  the  metropolitan  class,  hereby 
created,  may  create  a  board  of  examiners  and  examine  their  own  teachers,  as 
now  provided  for  cities  of  the  first  class,  or  they  may  vote  to  accept  the  county 
and  state  teachers'  certificates  instead,  and  discontinue  their  boards  of  exam- 
iners. 

Sec.  15.  Boards  of  Education  in  metropolitan  districts  shall  have  power  to 
establish  and  maintain  kindergartens,  elementary  schools,  intermediate  schools, 
high  schools  of  different  kinds,  manual  training  schools,  vocational  schools, 
schools  of  trades,  neighborhood  schools,  truant  schools,  schools  for  the  educa- 
tion of  special  classes  of  any  kind,  evening  schools,  vacation  schools,  playgrounds, 
lecture  courses,  and  such  other  types  of  educational  agencies  or  schools  as  may 
to  them  seem  desirable  to  meet  the  peculiar  needs  of  such  cities;  to  fix  the  days 
of  the  year  and  the  hours  of  the  day  when  such  schools  and  other  educational 
agencies  may  be  open  or  in  session;  to  admit  to  such  schools,  in  addition  to  the 
persons  now  provided  for  by  law,  such  other  persons  as  they  may  deem  desirable; 
and  to  prescribe  the  textbooks  and  courses  of  study  for  the  use  of  such  schools, 
and  to  change  the  same,  all  such  prescriptions  and  changes  to  be  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  Superintendent  of  Schools;  provided,  that  any  textbook  once 
adopted  and  in  use  shall  not  be  changed  oftener  than  once  in  four  years;  and 
provided,  further,  that  the  taxpayers  of  any  metropolitan  district  may,  by  vote, 
authorize  the  Board  of  Education  to  provide  free  textbooks  for  any  or  all  schools 
maintained. 


Appendix  A  425 

Sec.  16.  Boards  of  Education  in  metropolitan  districts  shall  provide  for  the 
taking  of  a  detailed  school  census  of  their  districts,  by  years  and  sex,  and  by 
residence  and  school  attendance,  and  shall  provide  for  keeping  such  as  accurate 
as  may  be,  with  a  view  to  knowing  fully  the  educational  needs  of  the  district 
and  the  full  enforcement  of  all  laws  relating  to  school  attendance,  child  labor, 
or  juvenile  delinquency.  i 

Sec.  17.  The  Boards  of  Education  for  such  metropolitan  districts  shall,  in 
all  matters  not  specifically  provided  for  in  this  act,  be  controlled  and  subject 
to  the  general  school  laws  relating  to  cities  of  the  first  class,  or  the  general  school 
laws  of  the  state;  provided,  however,  that  all  acts  or  parts  of  acts  in  conflict 
with  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  act  are  hereby  repealed,  in  so  far  as  they 
relate  to  metropolitan  districts. 


APPENDIX  B 

i.   REPORT  OF  SURVEY  COMMITTEE 

/"TAHE  survey  covered  by  the  report  given  in  this  volume  had  its  beginning 
in  a  resolution  introduced  by  Mr.  W.  B.  Ayer  and  passed  at  the  regular 
annual  meeting  of  the  voters  of  School  District  No.  i,  Multnomah 
County,  Oregon,  held  on  December  27,  1912,  in  the  following  terms: 

"Whereas,  the  average  daily  attendance  at  the  public  schools  of  this  district 
has  increased  from  10,387  in  1002,  to  23,712  in  1912,  and  the  annual  disburse- 
ments have  increased  during  the  same  period  from  $420,879.61  to  $2,490,477.28 
and 

"Whereas,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  pubh'c  schools  should  be 
kept  at  the  highest  point  of  efficiency,  it  is  hereby  declared  to  be  the  sense  of 
this  meeting  that  a  full  and  complete  survey  be  made  of  the  public  school  sys- 
tem of  this  district,  comprising: 

1.  The  location,  type,  character,  and  condition  of  existing  school  houses, 
and  the  estimated  cost  and  type  of  future  buildings; 

2.  Of  the  organization  and  methods  of  administration; 

3.  Of  the  form  and  manner  of  instruction; 

4.  The  courses  of  study  and  the  quality  of  the  textbooks; 

5.  The  extent  and  need  of  playgrounds  and  gymnasiums; 

6.  The  development  of  domestic  science,  manual  training,  trade,  agricul- 
tural and  horticultural  schools; 

7.  The  salaries  of  teachers  and  other  employees; 

8.  The  method  and  system  of  accounting; 

9.  The  form  of  organization,  and  the  examination  of  the  school  laws  of 
the  state,  as  applied  to  this  district; 

10.  Of  the  average  cost  per  pupil  in  comparison  with  other  cities;  and, 

11.  Of  the  scientific  method  of  raising  the  required  revenue,  either  by 
direct  taxation  or  the  issuance  of  bonds,  or  both; 

Therefore,  be  it  resolved,  that  a  committee  consisting  of 

Mr.  Richard  W.  Montague, 
Mrs.  Millie  R.  Trumbull, 
Mr.  L.  A.  Lewis, 
Mr.  J.  A.  Madsen, 
Mr.  L.  J.  Goldsmith, 

is  hereby  appointed  to  make  a  full  and  complete  survey  of  every  phase  of  the 
public  school  system  of  this  district,  said  committee  to  serve  without  pay,  but 

426 


Appendix  B  427 

they  are  authorized  and  empowered  to  employ  such  expert  investigators  as 
may  in  their  judgment  seem  necessary;  and  the  directors  of  this  district  are 
hereby  authorized  and  directed  to  apportion  to  the  expense  of  said  committee 
a  sum  not  in  excess  of  $7,500.00,  which  sum  shall  be  paid  to  the  treasurer  of 
said  committee  on  the  written  order  of  the  chairman  and  secretary  thereof. 
Said  committee  shall  have  power  to  fill  any  vacancies  that  may  occur  in  their 
membership,  and  shall  report  to  the  directors  and  taxpayers  of  this  district 
their  recommendations,  together  with  all  reports  received  and  expenditures 
made  by  them." 

Some  question  having  arisen  as  to  the  power  of  the  voters  of  the  district  to 
appropriate  moneys  to  be  expended  for  a  specific  purpose,  the  Board  of  Direc- 
tors of  the  district  at  its  meeting  of  January  22,  1913,  set  the  question  at  rest 
by  passing  the  following  resolution: 

"Resolved,  that  the  Board  of  School  Directors  does  hereby  appoint  Richard 
W.  Montague,  Mrs.  Millie  R.  Trumbull,  L.  A.  Lewis,  J.  A.  Madsen,  and  L.  J. 
Goldsmith  to  make  a  survey  of  the  public  schools  of  this  district,  in  conformity 
with  a  resolution  adopted  at  the  annual  school  meeting  held  in  the  Lincoln 
High  School,  December  27,  1912,  as  follows:  [Here  follows  the  resolution  then 
adopted]  and  that  the  committee  present  to  the  board  for  payment  all  vouchers 
of  the  expense  incurred  in  carrying  into  effect  the  terms  of  the  resolution." 

Under  this  grant  of  authority  the  task  was  undertaken.  The  committee  was 
clear  from  the  outset  that  a  survey,  to  be  of  any  value,  must  be  made  by  pro- 
fessional school  men,  and  that  the  functions  of  the  committee  ought  to  be  con- 
fined to  the  selection  and  employment  of  qualified  experts  to  do  the  required 
work  as  thoroughly  as  possible  within  the  limits  of  the  appropriation.  From  all 
accessible  sources  the  names  of  the  educators  in  the  United  States  best  informed 
and  of  the  best  judgment  in  the  matter  of  school  surveys  were  sought,  and 
letters  were  addressed  to  a  large  number  asking  for  their  views  as  to  the  proper 
scope  and  method  of  the  proposed  survey  and  for  recommendations  as  to  the 
persons  best  qualified  to  do  the  work.  It  may  be  remarked  in  passing  that  there 
was  remarkable  agreement  among  all  those  consulted  on  the  latter  point,  and 
the  work  of  the  committee  was  thereby  much  simplified.  At  this  stage  of  its 
inquiries  the  committee  had  and  profited  by  personal  interviews  with  George 
D.  Strayer,  professor  of  educational  administration  at  Columbia  University, 
who  happened  to  be  in  the  West  on  work  of  this  character,  and  with  President 
Foster  and  Professor  Sisson  of  Reed  College,  from  all  of  whom  the  committee 
received  very  valuable  advice  and  suggestions.  Not  only  to  these,  but  to  the 
many  who  replied  to  our  letters  the  committee  has  to  express  cordial  thanks. 
The  disinterested  spirit  of  public  service  shown  by  these  men  in  giving  freely 
to  the  committee  of  their  valuable  tune  and  invaluable  knowledge  and  experi- 
ence, without  thought  of  recompense,  is  beyond  praise.  The  letters  we  re- 
ceived, taken  together,  constitute  a  discussion  of  the  problems  of  school  surveys 
and  the  related  questions  of  highest  value. 

Among  a  considerable  number  of  educators  of  high  qualifications  considered, 
the  choice  of  the  committee  finally  fell  upon  the  authors  of  the  accompanying 


428  Appendix  B 

report,  whose  names  and  professional  occupations  are  set  forth  on  a  preceding 
page.  Their  report  must  speak  for  itself.  The  opinion,  favorable  or  otherwise, 
of  a  committee  of  laymen  as  to  its  quality  would  have  no  weight  with  the  judi- 
cious, but  we  cannot  refrain  from  a  word  of  commendation  for  the  capable, 
fearless,  and  energetic  way  in  which  the  work  was  prosecuted,  nor  from  record- 
ing the  conviction  that  our  choice  was  singularly  fortunate. 

The  report  is  presented  precisely  as  it  came  from  the  authors,  the  under- 
standing from  the  first  having  been  that  it  would  be  submitted  without  editing, 
adding,  or  suppressing.  The  original  resolution  requires  the  committee  to  pre- 
sent its  recommendations,  but  the  same  reasons  which  obtain  for  the  making  of 
the  report  by  experts  have  equal  weight  against  the  offering  of  detailed  recom- 
mendations by  the  committee. 

One  recommendation,  however,  we  have  to  make  with  all  possible  earnest- 
ness, and  that  is  that  the  report  receive  the  considerate  attention  of  all  officers, 
parents  and  thoughtful  citizens  of  the  district.  In  view  of  the  prune  importance 
and  unquestionable  wisdom  of  many  of  the  suggestions  of  the  report  we  be- 
lieve that  their  execution  ought  not  to  be  lost  sight  of,  and  we  take  the  liberty 
to  recommend  further  that  a  committee  be  appointed  by  the  coming  taxpayers' 
meeting  to  consider  how  far  the  recommendations  of  the  report  have  been,  are 
being,  or  can  be  carried  into  effect.  The  effort  to  bring  our  schools  up  to  the 
highest  pitch  of  efficiency,  with  the  means  available,  should  never  be  allowed 
to  fail  or  falter.  We  submit  this  report  in  the  hope  that  it  may  bring  home  to 
all  of  us  that  the  schools  are  maintained  to  fit  the  children  for  life,  and  are  only 
successful  in  so  far  as  that  end  is  kept  steadily  in  view,  and  that  it  may  bear  fruit 
in  increased  devotion  by  all  of  us  to  our  supreme  duty  to  give  our  children 
the  means  and  opportunity  of  being  wiser  and  better  men  and  women. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

RICHARD  W.  MONTAGUE, 
MILLIE  R.  TRUMBULL, 
L.  A.  LEWIS, 
J.  A.  MADSEN, 
L.  J.  GOLDSMITH, 

Survey  Committee. 


2.   DIRECTOR'S  LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 

Mr.  Richard  W.  Montague,  Chairman  of  the  Taxpayers'  Committee,  Portland, 
Oregon. 

Dear  Sir: 

I  have  the  honor  to  submit  herewith  to  you,  for  your  committee,  the  final  re- 
port of  the  Survey  of  the  public  school  system  of  School  District  No.  i,  Mult- 
nomah  County,  Oregon,  the  same  being  what  is  commonly  known  as  the  school 
system  of  the  city  of  Portland. 

The  final  report  is  the  work  of  my  associates  and  myself,  and  the  proper  credit 


Appendix  B  429 

for  chapters  written  by  my  associates  is  indicated  by  prefatory  notes,  or  some 
other  designation  at  the  beginning  of  each  chapter. 

While  individual  members  of  the  Survey  thus  took  particular  charge  of  cer- 
tain aspects  of  the  work  and  drafted  certain  chapters,  I  think  that  I  may  safely 
say  for  the  other  members,  and  certainly  can  for  myself,  that  the  report,  as 
submitted,  represents  the  combined  judgment  of  all  of  those  who  worked  on 
the  Survey.  I  was  in  Portland  at  the  time  each  of  my  associates  arrived,  and 
started  him  and  for  a  time  worked  with  him  on  the  Survey.  Conferences  were 
held  daily,  and  before  each  group  left  Portland,  final  conferences  were  held  at 
which  the  main  conclusions  were  agreed  upon.  In  this  way  the  work  was  under 
constant  discussion,  and  the  results  of  the  daily  observations  of  each  man  were 
presented  to  the  other  members.  Since  the  chapters  were  written,  those  in 
Parts  I  and  II  have  been  exchanged  among  those  who  worked  on  these  two  parts, 
and  approved  by  all.  The  same  is  true  for  all  chapters  in  Part  III.  The  facts 
and  needs  of  the  system  were  so  plain,  the  system  was  characterized  by  such 
uniformity,  and  the  supervisory  conditions  and  needs  were  so  evident  to  all, 
that  an  agreement  on  the  general  criticisms  and  recommendations  to  be  em- 
bodied in  the  report  was  easily  reached. 

Aside  from  certain  preliminary  work  which  I  did  during  the  two  days  I  was 
in  Portland  in  March,  the  work  of  the  Survey  really  began  with  the  coming  of 
Superintendent  Spaulding  and  myself  on  April  6.  Other  members  of  the  Sur- 
vey staff  came  later  —  Professor  Dresslar  on  May  10,  Superintendent  Francis 
on  May  17,  Professor  Terman  on  May  19,  and  Professor  Elliott  on  May  25  — 
each  remaining  long  enough  to  gather  the  necessary  data  and  to  complete  his 
part  of  the  local  work.  The  time  spent  by  each  varied  from  one  to  three  weeks. 
I  was  in  Portland  during  the  time  each  of  the  men  was  there,  and  worked  with 
them.  The  statistical  clerk  for  the  Survey,  Mr.  Tanner,  spent  a  month  in 
Portland,  making  tests  in  the  schools  and  tabulating  statistical  information 
for  the  use  of  the  Survey  staff.  The  field  work  in  Portland  was  completed  the 
first  week  in  June,  and  the  months  of  June  and  July  were  spent  in  formulating 
the  report. 

Naturally,  in  such  a  short  time,  not  every  one  of  the  sixty  schools  could  be 
visited,  and  but  a  relatively  small  number  of  the  over  eight  hundred  teachers 
could  be  seen  at  work.  Professor  Dresslar,  in  his  survey  of  the  school  buildings, 
visited  all  but  two  or  three  of  the  schools  of  the  district;  and  almost  every  school 
principal  was  seen  and  questioned  by  some  one  of  the  Survey,  as  to  the  organi- 
zation and  administration  of  the  school  system.  Beyond  this,  either  selected 
schools,  typical  of  the  different  educational  conditions  found,  were  visited  and 
studied  in  some  detail  (Spaulding),  or  studies  of  type  forms  of  instruction  were 
made  (Francis,  Terman).  It  was  the  common  judgment  of  the  different  mem- 
bers of  the  Survey,  and  is  so  stated  by  three  in  their  written  reports,  that  the 
school  system  was  characterized  by  so  great  a  uniformity  that  no  detailed  study 
of  many  of  the  schools  was  necessary.  What  was  attempted  was  to  make  such 
a  survey  as  would  enable  us  to  state  the  nature  of  the  work  done,  the  actuat- 
ing motives  and  spirit  of  the  work,  and  the  present  and  future  needs  of  the 
system. 


430  Appendix  B 

While  of  necessity  this  report  must  at  times  be  critical,  such  has  not  been 
our  main  purpose.  Had  we  desired  to  offer  merely  a  critical  report,  or  to  sum- 
marize the  merits  and  defects  and  cast  up  a  balance,  and  stop  with  such,  the 
task  would  have  been  much  easier,  and  the  report  would  have  been  much 
shorter.  On  the  contrary,  we  have  tried,  instead,  to  outline  a  constructive 
program  for  the  improvement  and  development  of  your  school  system,  and  have 
used  criticisms  only  as  a  basis  upon  which  to  build.  Such  criticisms  as  are  made, 
too,  it  is  hoped  will  not  be  taken  as  personal  by  anyone,  as  they  describe  a  con- 
dition rather  than  individuals.  In  particular  we  do  not  wish  the  report  to  be 
taken,  in  any  sense,  as  a  personal  criticism  of  the  outgoing  Superintendent  or 
of  the  Board  of  School  Directors,  as  we  feel  that  the  city  owes  much  to  the  very 
faithful  services  of  both.  Your  school  system,  despite  its  defects,  is  still  above 
the  average  in  worth. 

Your  city,  though,  is  not  an  average  city,  your  people  are  not  average  people, 
in  particular  your  present  and  future  educational  needs  are  not  average  needs, 
and  your  educational  possibilities  are  not  average  possibilities,  and  the  time  is 
now  at  hand  when  your  school  department  ought  to  be  transformed  from  a 
somewhat  passive  organization  into  an  active,  energetic  institution,  working 
for  the  improvement  of  all  the  conditions  surrounding  the  life  and  work  of  your 
people.  Some  of  the  means  for  accomplishing  this  we  have  tried  to  point  out 
in  this  report. 

My  associates  on  the  Survey  wish  me  to  express  for  them,  and  I  do  also  for 
myself,  our  appreciation  of  the  courteous  and  helpful  assistance  rendered  us 
by  the  members  of  the  Board  of  School  Directors,  the  entire  office  force  at  the 
administration  offices,  the  principals  and  the  teachers.  Mr.  Sabin,  Mr.  Rigler, 
Mr.  Thomas,  and  yourself  should  be  singled  out  for  special  mention.  Mr.  L. 
H.  Weir,  field  secretary  of  the  Playground  and  Recreation  Association  of  Amer- 
ica, was  also  very  kind  in  allowing  me  to  read  and  to  make  some  extracts  for  my 
notes  from  his  unpublished  survey  of  the  play  and  recreation  activities  and 
facilities  of  your  city. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

EliWOOD  P.   CUBBERLEY, 

Director  of  the  Survey. 
STANFORD  UNIVERSITY,  CALIFORNIA, 
August  20,  1913. 


Index 


INDEX 


Abnormal  children,  segregation  of,  198, 

364-369- 

Acoustic  properties  of  school  buildings, 
320. 

Administrative  organization,  of  Port- 
land school  district,  ioff.;  coordina- 
tion of  authorities  under  the  present, 
10;  organization  of  Board  of  School 
Directors,  lo-n;  business  depart- 
ment organization,  11-14;  educa- 
tional department  organization,  14- 
16;  bad  effects  of  present  system,  23- 
25;  remedy  for  present  conditions, 
25-33;  ill  effects  of  rigidity  and  uni- 
formity of,  in  Portland  elementary 
and  secondary  schools,  125-175. 

Adults,  extension  education  advocated 
for,  116,  122. 

Advisory  committee  on  buildings,  338. 

Age  and  over  age,  significance  of,  184- 
192. 

Age  range  within  which  children  may 
advantageously  be  instructed  to- 
gether, 185-186. 

Agricultural  high  school,  demand  for 
an,  121,  247. 

Agricultural  interests  of  Portland,  104- 
105. 

Agricultural  training,  importance  of, 
208,  237-238;  in  pre-vocational 
courses,  213. 

Anaemic  children,  need  of  special 
classes  for,  119. 

Apparatus,  lack  of  educational,  in  ele- 
mentary schools,  160-161;  recom- 
mendations as  to  classroom,  316- 
318,  333-334- 

Architecture,  instruction  in,  in  night 
high  schools,  272. 

Arithmetic,  to  be  viewed  as  a  tool  sub- 
ject rather  than  as  an  end  in  itself, 
116-117;  too  much  time  devoted  to 
abstract,  in  Portland  elementary 


schools,  142-143;  character  of  in- 
struction in,  in  grammar  grades,  153- 
154;  elementary  instruction  in,  207. 

Art  schools,  establishment  of  special, 
273-274. 

Assembly  halls  in  school  buildings, 
297;  recommendations  concerning, 
318-319. 

Athletic  exercises  in  schools,  362-363. 

Attendance,  enforcement  of  school, 
383-385;  records  and  reports  of,  385- 
389- 

Ayres,  Leonard  P.,  Open-Air  Schools, 
cited,  358. 

Backward  children,  special  classes  for, 
119,  366-368. 

Banisters,  stair,  recommendations  con- 
cerning, 318. 

Baths  in  school  buildings,  297;  recom- 
mendations concerning,  332. 

Biography,  historical,  elementary  in- 
struction in,  208. 

Blackboards  in  classrooms,  317-318. 

Blind,  special  classes  for  the,  119; 
special  schools  for,  365. 

Board  of  School  Directors,  organiza- 
tion of,  10-16;  volume  of  work  un- 
dertaken by,  1 6-1 8;  types  of  busi- 
ness dealt  with  at  meetings  of,  18- 
23;  proper  functions  of,  31-33;  bad 
effect  of  prominence  of,  on  system 
of  supervision,  38-39;  rules  and  reg- 
ulations of,  41 ;  effect  of  selection  of 
teachers  by,  61-63;  financial  and 
educational  responsibility  for  school 
gardening  should  be  assumed  by, 
248;  records  of,  392  ff.;  annual  re- 
port of,  393-395- 

Bonding,  paying  for  school  buildings 
by,  300-303. 

Bookbinding,  instruction  in,  in  pre- 
vocational  courses,  213. 


433 


434 


Index 


Border-line  children,  schools  for,  366- 
368. 

Bryant,  Louise,  School  Feeding,  cited, 
360. 

Building  department,  position  of, 
under  proper  organization  of  school 
system,  29-31. 

Building  problem  in  Portland,  283  ff.; 
complication  of,  by  shifting  of  pop- 
ulation, 288-290. 

Buildings,  for  intermediate  schools, 
252-253;  type  of,  best  suited  to 
school  work,  295-297. 

Business  department  of  school  organi- 
zation, 11-14;  excellence  of  present 
organization  in  Portland,  29. 

Business  interests  of  Portland,  103- 
105. 

Business  practice,  should  be  taught  in 
night  high  schools,  272. 

Capacities  of  pupils,  tested  in  the  in- 
termediate period,  214. 

Census,  the  school,  375-383. 

Certification  of  teachers,  wisdom  of 
reliance  upon,  66. 

Children,  sympathetic  study  of,  by 
teachers,  178. 

Civics,  instruction  in,  in  intermediate 
period,  211;  study  of,  in  pre-voca- 
tional  courses,  214. 

Classes,  size  of,  119;  commendable  size 
of,  in  elementary  schools,  162-163; 
relation  between  size  of,  and  cost  of 
educational  system,  412-413. 

Classification  of  pupils,  by  their  knowl- 
edge and  ability  respecting  school 
subjects,  192-194;  according  to 
types  of  instruction  best  suited  to 
their  respective  needs,  200-202. 

Classroom  instruction  in  elementary 
schools,  147-154. 

Classrooms,  size  of,  313-314;  height, 
314-315;  floors,  3i5~3l6;  desks,  316- 
317;  blackboards,  317-318;  heating, 
322-325;  ventilation,  325-328;  use 
of  slates  in,  334. 

Coeducation,  conditions  affecting  ques- 
tion of,  198-199. 

College  preparatory  courses  in  high 
schools,  263. 


College  preparatory  subjects,  instruc- 
tion in,  120. 

Commercial  high  school,  need  of  a,  121. 

Commercial  studies,  in  pre-vocational 
courses,  213;  criticism  of,  in  high 
schools,  239-241. 

Committee  on  new  school  buildings 
recommended,  338. 

Community  work  in  schools,  274-278. 

Composition,  inadequacy  of  instruc- 
tion in,  140-142;  poor  work  in,  in 
grammar  grades,  149-151. 

Compulsory  Education  Law,  122,  383- 
385,  391- 

Contracting,  instruction  in,  in  night 
high  schools,  272. 

Cookery,  lack  of  instruction  in,  in  ele- 
mentary schools,  232;  taught  in 
neighborhood  schools,  276. 

Corporation  management,  principles 
of,  applied  to  educational  affairs, 

32-33- 

Cost  of  system  of  education,  404-418. 

Courses  of  study,  criticism  of,  in  ele- 
mentary schools,  134-143,  205;  in 
secondary  schools,  165-167,  216; 
pre-vocational,  213-214;  need  of  con- 
stant change  in  secondary  period, 
217;  vocational  studies,  224-249;  in 
intermediate  schools,  260-263;  en" 
largement  of,  in  night  high  schools, 
272. 

Crippled  children,  special  school  for, 

365- 

Current  events,  study  of,  in  intermedi- 
ate period,  21 1 ;  in  pre-vocational 
courses,  214. 

Curriculum,  discussion  of  the  ele- 
mentary school,  127-163;  uniformity 
of,  for  all  high  schools,  a  barrier  to 
progress,  160-171;  lack  of  unity  and 
definiteness  of  purpose  in  pupils' 
courses,  171. 

Day  nursery,  in  neighborhood  school, 
274-275;  as  a  laboratory  for  teach- 
ing care  of  children,  277. 

Deaf,  special  classes  for  the,  119;  ex- 
ample of  wrong  educational  methods 
applied  to,  131-133;  special  school 
for,  needed,  364-365. 


Index 


435 


Defective  children,  special  schools  and 
classes  for,  119,  364-369;  inadequate 
provision  for,  in  Portland  schools, 
163. 

Dental  clinics  for  schools,  351-353. 

Department  heads  in  high  schools, 
salaries  of,  76;  payment  according  to 
merit  and  efficiency,  85. 

Desks,  schoolroom,  316-317. 

Discipline  in  elementary  schools,  163. 

District  schools,  274-278. 

Domestic  art,  instruction  in,  in  high 
schools,  245. 

Domestic  science,  instruction  in,  118; 
provision  for,  in  high  schools,  245. 

Domestic  science  rooms  in  school 
buildings,  297. 

Drawing,  need  of  provision  for  instruc- 
tion in,  118;  correlation  of  nature 
study  with,  208;  instruction  in,  in 
intermediate  period,  211;  in  pre- 
vocational  courses,  214;  in  prepara- 
tory courses  in  secondary  school, 
216;  criticism  of,  as  taught  in  ele- 
mentary schools,  233-234;  work  in, 
in  high  schools,  241-243. 

Drinking  fountains  in  school  buildings, 

333- 

Dust  and  disease,  306. 
Dust  cloths,  use  of,  333. 

Economic  position  of  Portland,  91-111. 

Economics,  instruction  in,  in  high 
schools,  1 20. 

Education,  of  Portland  teachers,  54- 
56;  statistics  of  system  of,  in  Port- 
land, iio-in,  404-418;  present-day 
changes  in  conception  of,  113-114. 

Educational  department  of  school  or- 
ganization, 14-16. 

Educational  materials,  dearth  of  suit- 
able, in  elementary  schools,  160-162. 

Educational  program,  outline  of  an, 
adapted  to  local  educational  needs, 
176-223. 

Efficiency  system  applied  to  teachers, 
81-87. 

Electrical  work,  instruction  in,  in 
night  high  schools,  272. 

Elementary  schools,  requirements  of 
teachers  in,  66;  salaries  of  teachers, 


75;  payment  of  teachers  according 
to  merit  and  efficiency,  82-83;  ob- 
jects to  be  aimed  at  by,  under  mod- 
ern conception  of  education,  115; 
courses  of  instruction  which  should 
be  given,  116-119;  analysis  and  dis- 
cussion of  present  dead  curriculum, 
127!!.;  mechanical  form  and  pre- 
scriptions of  course  of  study,  134- 
143;  dearth  of  suitable  educational 
materials,  160-162;  appropriate  sub- 
jects of  instruction,  205;  vocational 
studies  in,  226-238;  needed  reorgani- 
zation and  expansion,  250-251. 

English,  instruction  in,  in  intermediate 
period,  211;  study  of,  in  pre-voca- 
tional  courses,  213;  preparatpry 
courses  in,  in  secondary  school,  216. 

Entertainments  in  connection  with 
night  schools,  270-271. 

Examinations,  criticism  of  system  of 
promotional,  in  elementary  schools, 
144-147;  cost  of  system  in  high 
schools,  172. 

Extension  education,  need  for,  116, 122. 

Feeble-minded,  classes  for  the,  368. 
Financial  records,  keeping  of,  399-400. 
Fire  drills,  excellence  of,  in  Portland 

schools,  297-298. 
Fireproof    construction,    required    in 

school    buildings,    288;    danger    of 

overdoing  matter  of,  298;  economy 

of,  298-300. 

Floors  of  school  buildings,  315-316. 
Foreign-born  element  in  population  of 

Portland,  95-97. 
Free  textbooks,  gradual  introduction 

of  system,  advised,  161-162. 

Gardening.    See  School  gardening. 

Geography,  nature  of  instruction  in, 
117;  abstract  and  bookish  character 
of  work  in,  in  grammar  grades,  151- 
153;  elementary  instruction  in,  207; 
correlation  of  nature  study  with, 
208;  instruction  in,  in  intermediate 
period,  211;  study  of,  in  pre-voca- 
tional  courses,  213. 

Grammar,  right  and  wrong  views  in 


Index 


teaching  of,  116-117;  excessive  at- 
tention to  technical,  in  Portland 
schools,  largely  wasted  effort,  138- 
142;  character  of  instruction  in,  in 
grammar  grades,  153-154. 
Grammar  grades,  classroom  instruc- 
tion in,  148-154;  routine  character 
of  work  of  teachers  and  pupils,  155- 
156. 

Health  of  school  teachers,  attention  to, 

360-361. 
Health   supervision   in   schools,    119, 

339-37I- 

Heating  of  classrooms,  322-325. 

Hessler,  Robert,  cited  on  relation  of 
city  dust  to  disease,  306. 

High  schools,  requirements  of  teachers 
in,  66;  salaries  of  teachers,  76;  pay- 
ment of  teachers  according  to  merit 
and  efficiency,  84-85;  educational 
needs  to  be  met  by,  120-121;  need 
of  commercial  and  agricultural,  121; 
night,  122,  260-272;  increase  in  en- 
rollment, 163-164;  provision  for 
secondary  education,  164;  character 
of  instruction,  165;  courses  of  study, 
165-167;  principals  and  teachers  em- 
ployed in  teaching  subjects,  not  in 
educating  youth,  167-168;  uniform- 
ity of  curriculum  for  all,  a  barrier  to 
progress,  169-171;  pupils'  courses 
lack  unity  and  definiteness  of  pur- 
pose, 171;  cost  of  examination  sys- 
tem, 172;  vocational  studies,  238^- 
247;  shop  equipment  and  its  distri- 
bution, in  industrial  work  in,  243- 
244;  work  of,  to  be  done  in  interme- 
diate schools,  260;  needed  reorgani- 
zation and  expansion  of,  263-264; 
extension  of  night  high  school  work, 
272;  sites  for  future,  294-295.  See 
also  Secondary  schools. 

History,  nature  of  instruction  in,  117- 
ii  8;  instruction  in,  in  high  schools, 
120;  systematic  instruction  in  United 
States  history  not  general  enough, 
143;  instruction  in,  in  grammar 
grades,  dry  and  dull,  153;  instruc- 
tion in,  in  intermediate  stage,  an; 
study  of,  in  pre-vocational  courses, 


213;  preparatory  courses  in,  in  sec- 
ondary school,  216. 

Holmes,  Arthur,  The  Conservation  of 
the  Child,  cited,  366. 

Home-economics  building  in  neighbor- 
hood school,  276. 

Home-keeping,  should  be  taught  in 
night  high  schools,  272. 

Home-making,  courses  in,  213. 

Household  arts,  instruction  in,  in  in- 
termediate period,  21 1 ;  in  prepara- 
tory courses  in  secondary  school,  216. 

Housework,  instruction  of  girls  in,  118. 

Hygiene,  instruction  in,  208,  361-362; 
instruction  in,  hi  intermediate  period, 
21 1 ;  study  of,  in  pre-vocational 
courses,  214;  educational,  340-351; 
of  instruction,  364. 

Illiteracy,  extension  education  needed 
as  a  remedy  for,  116. 

Incorrigibles,  special  classes  for,  369. 

Individual,  adapting  work  to  needs  of 
the,  2 1 1-2 1 2. 

Industrial  training,  not  needed  in  a  city 
of  Portland's  character,  246. 

Industrial  work  hi  high  schools,  243- 
244. 

Intermediate  courses,  instruction  in, 
209-214. 

Intermediate  schools,  requirements  of 
teachers  in,  66;  salaries  of  teachers, 
75;  payment  of  teachers  in,  accord- 
ing to  merit  and  efficiency,  83-84; 
desirability  of,  251;  character,  loca- 
tion, and  buildings,  251-253;  cost, 
253;  special  purposes  of,  253-256; 
advantages,  256-257;  teachers  for, 
258;  sources  of  opposition,  258-259; 
courses  of  study  in,  260-263. 

Janitor  service  in  schools,  334-336. 
Janitors,    school    for,    recommended, 
278,  335-336. 

Kindergartens,  establishment  of,  ad- 
vocated, 115;  value  of  instruction  in, 
202;  number  of  children  in  Portland 
of  suitable  age  for,  202-203;  cost  of 
instruction,  203-204;  should  be  pro- 
vided only  after  other  school  provi- 


Index 


437 


sions  more  important  and  pressing, 
204-205;  reasons  for  establishing, 
224-225;  relation  of  work  in,  to  that 
of  first  grade,  250. 

Knowledge,  present-day  view  as  to 
purpose  of  acquiring,  114-115. 

Language  arts,  elementary  instruc- 
tion in,  205,  206. 

Languages,  instruction  in,  in  high 
schools,  120;  instruction  in,  in  inter- 
mediate period,  211;  preparatory 
courses  in,  in  secondary  school,  216. 

Laundering,  in  neighborhood  schools, 
276. 

Law,  a  new,  recommended  for  reorgan- 
ization of  Portland  school  district, 
7-9,  421-425. 

Library,  room  for  branch  public,  in 
school  buildings,  297. 

Lickley,  E.  J.,  report  by,  cited,  369. 

Lighting  of  schools,  307-313. 

Literary  courses  for  intermediate  stage 
of  instruction,  210-211. 

Los  Angeles,  primary  manual  arts  in 
elementary  school  course  of,  228. 

Lunches,  school,  275-276,  359-360. 

Manual  arts,  primary,  in  elementary 
school  course  of  study,  226-228. 

Manual  training,  instruction  in,  118; 
in  intermediate  period,  211;  in  pre- 
paratory courses  in  secondary  school, 
216;  criticism  of,  in  Portland  ele- 
mentary schools,  228-230. 

Manufacturing  studies,  in  pre-voca- 
tional  courses,  213. 

Mathematics,  instruction  in,  in  high 
schools,  120;  instruction  in,  in  in- 
termediate stage,  21 1 ;  study  of,  in 
pre-vocational  courses,  213;  pre- 
paratory courses  in,  in  secondary 
school,  216. 

Mechanical  studies,  in  pre-vocational 
courses,  213;  in  night  high  schools, 
272. 

Medical  clinics,  353. 

Medical  inspection  in  schools,  339  ff. 

Merit  system  for  teachers,  81-85;  ad- 
vantages of,  86-87. 


Motor  instincts  of  children,  recogni- 
tion of,  225. 

Music,  need  of  provision  for  instruc- 
tion hi,  1 1 8 ;  instruction  in ,  in  elemen- 
tary schools,  234-235;  a  fundamental 
pedagogic  mistake  in  teaching,  235. 

Music  rooms  in  school  buildings,  297. 

Natural  capacity,  influence  of,  in  de- 
termining appropriate  instruction, 
195-197. 

Nature  study,  inadequacy  of  courses 
in,  144;  elementary  instruction  in, 
208. 

Neighborhood  schools,  274-277;  educa- 
tional results,  and  cost,  277-278. 

Night  schools,  122;  needed  reorgani- 
zation and  expansion,  269-270;  en- 
tertainment feature  of,  270-271;  ex- 
tension of  high  school  work  in,  272. 

Non-English-speaking  children,  treat- 
ment of,  197-198. 

Nurses,  school,  353~354. 

Open-air  schools,  296;  need  for,  in 
Portland,  320-321,  355-358. 

Orientation  of  school  buildings,  307- 
308. 

Over  age,  discussion  of,  184-192. 

Over-age  children,  need  of  special 
classes  for,  119. 

Penmanship,  poor  and  careless  work  in, 
in  grammar  grades,  151. 

Permanent^ tenure  law  foj:  teachers,  67- 
69. 

Physical  training,  instruction  in,  208; 
excellence  of  exercises,  in  Portland, 
362. 

Play,  value  of,  in  development  of  the 
child,  225-226. 

Playgrounds,  needs  of  Portland  in  re- 
gard to,  122,  225-226,  293-294;  pro- 
tection of  children  on,  336;  super- 
vision and  instruction  of  children  on, 
362-363. 

Population,  growth  of,  of  Portland,  94; 
character  of,  95-100;  age  distribu- 
tion of,  100-103;  rapid  increase  in 
school  population,  283-286;  shift- 
ing of,  288-290. 


438 


Index 


Portland,  comparison  of  city  and 
school-district  boundaries,  4-6;  com- 
pared with  other  cities  as  to  salary 
schedules,  75-76;  social  and  eco- 
nomic position,  as  compared  with 
other  cities,  91  ff.;  size  and  rate  of 
growth,  92-94;  population  and  its 
characteristics,  94-103;  business  in- 
terests, 103-105;  wealth,  106;  cost 
for  city  maintenance,  106-110; 
amount  spent  for  education,  110- 
m;  educational  needs  of  such  a  city 
as,  112  ff.;  general  character  as  a 
city,  112-113;  the  special  educa- 
tional opportunity  of,  122-123,  416- 
417;  outline  of  an  educational  pro- 
gram adapted  to  needs  of,  176-223; 
present  needs  of  school  system,  41 7- 
418. 

Preparatory  courses  in  secondary 
school  period,  215-217. 

Pre-vocational  courses,  119;  for  inter- 
mediate stage  of  instruction,  210- 
211 ;  purpose  of,  212-214. 

Primary  grades,  classroom  instruc- 
tion in,  148;  encouraging  character 
of  work  of  teachers  in,  159-160. 

Primary  manual  arts  in  elementary 
school  course  of  study,  226-228. 

Principals,  subordination  of,  to  Board 
of  School  Directors,  38-39;  impair- 
ment of  efficiency  of,  40;  compara- 
tive salary  schedules  of,  75-76;  pay- 
ment of,  according  to  merit  and 
efficiency,  85;  deadening  effect  of 
present  mechanical  system  on,  156- 
159;  in  high  schools  are  employed  in 
teaching  subjects,  not  in  educating 
youth,  167-168;  duty  of  seeing  that 
all  pupils  who  ought  to  be  are  en- 
rolled, and  that  pupils  enrolled  are 
getting  the  treatment  they  need, 
220;  need  of  placing  more  responsi- 
bility on  high  school,  as  regards  vo- 
cational studies,  238-239;  reasons 
for  opposition  of,  to  intermediate 
schools,  259. 

Printing,  study  of,  in  pre-vocational 
courses,  213. 

Program,  outline  of  an  educational, 
176-223. 


Programs,  arrangement  of  school,  with 
view  to  hygiene  of  instruction,  364. 

Promotion,  should  be  determined  by 
what  a  pupil  needs,  not  by  what  he 
has  already  learned,  217-219. 

Promotional  examinations,  system  of, 
144-147;  cost  of  system,  in  high 
schools,  172. 

Psychologist,  the  school,  351. 

Pupils,  number  of,  in  classes,  162-163. 

Reading,  to  be  viewed  as  a  tool  sub- 
ject, 116-117;  perfunctory  character 
of  exercises  in,  in  grammar  grades, 
149. 

Records,  of  attendance  at  school,  385; 
of  truant  officer,  386-389;  of  Board 
of  School  Directors,  392  ff.;  forms 
and  blanks  for,  396-397;  need  for 
fundamental  educational,  397-399; 
financial,  399-400;  forms  for  reports 
and,  in  use,  400-403. 

Reorganizations  of  school  system 
needed,  250-279. 

Rigidity  of  Portland  school  system, 
125-126. 

Rules  and  regulations  under  system  of 
supervision,  41. 

Salaries  of  teachers,  schedules  of,  75- 
77;  criticism  of  those  paid  in  Port- 
land, 77-78;  uniform  schedule  of,  de- 
sirable, 78-80;  application  of  a  merit 
and  efficiency  system,  81-87. 

School  buildings,  problem  of,  283  ff . ; 
demand  for,  owing  to  rapid  increase 
in  population,  283-286;  recent  in- 
crease in  outlays  for,  286-288;  com- 
plication of  problem  by  shifting  of 
population,  288-290;  probable  future 
needs  regarding,  290-291;  size  of  lots 
for,  291-293;  need  for  larger  play- 
grounds connected  with,  293-294; 
for  high  schools,  294-295 ;  best  types 
of,  295-297;  rooms  for  special  pur- 
poses in,  297;  safest  kind  of,  297- 
298;  most  economical,  298-300; 
paying  for,  by  tax  or  by  bonding, 
300-303;  sites  for,  305-307;  light- 
ing problem,  307-313;  classrooms 
and  furnishings,  313-318;  stair  ban- 


Index 


439 


isters,  318;  assembly  rooms,  318- 
319;  acoustic  properties,  320;  venti- 
lation, 325-328;  toilets  and  urinals, 
329-332;  baths,  332;  cleaning  de- 
vices, 332-333;  drinking  fountains, 
333;  advisory  educational  committee 
recommended  for  new,  338. 

School  Clerk,  office  of,  n;  organiza- 
tion of  business  department  under, 
11-14;  proper  relations  of,  to  school 
superintendent,  25-26;  authority 
and  responsibility  of,  as  compared 
with  Superintendent,  42;  financial 
records  kept  by,  390-400. 

School  district,  Portland,  relation  to 
municipality,  3-6;  and  municipality 
compared  as  to  boundaries,  4;  ad- 
ministrative organization  of  the,  10- 

33- 

School  feeding,  359-360. 

School  gardening,  instruction  in,  118; 
correlation  of  nature  study  with, 
208;  criticism  of  method  followed  in 
elementary  schools,  235-238;  in 
neighborhood  schools,  277. 

School  lots,  size  of,  291-293. 

School  nurses,  work  of,  353-354. 

School  of  Trades,  164;  work  done  in 
the,  245-247. 

School  population,  rate  of  increase  in, 
283-286. 

School  time,  extension  of,  272-273. 

Schools,  state  origin  of  the  Portland, 
3-4;  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  state  control  of,  6-7;  need  of  a 
new  city  law  for  the  Portland,  7-9; 
modern  conception  of  true  function 
of,  113-114;  rigidity  of  present  sys- 
tem, 125-126;  curricula  of  second- 
ary, 163-172;  needed  reorganiza- 
tions and  expansions,  250  ff.;  types 
of  additional,  needed,  264-279,  364- 
369;  extension  of  time  of,  272-273; 
neighborhood,  or  district,  274-278; 
for  janitors,  278,  335-336;  open-air, 
296,  320-331,  355-358;  health  su- 
pervision in, 339 ff.;  special,  364-369; 
cost  of  system,  404-418. 

Science,  need  of  provision  for  instruc- 
tion in,  1 1 8;  instruction  in  elemen- 
tary,  in  intermediate  period ,  211; 


study  of  elementary,  in  pre-voca- 
tional  courses,  214;  preparatory 
courses  in,  in  secondary  school,  216. 

Science  rooms  in  school  buildings, 
297. 

Secondary  education,  needs  of,  in  such 
a  city  as  Portland,  120-121. 

Secondary  schools,  criticism  of  cur- 
ricula of,  163-172;  character  of  in- 
struction determined  by  length  of 
time  pupil  will  continue  in  school, 
214-215;  wide  range  of  preparatory 
and  vocational  courses,  215-216; 
courses  of  study  must  constantly 
change,  217;  vocational  studies  in, 
238-247 ;  the  School  of  Trades,  245- 
247;  agricultural  high  school  needed, 
247;  needed  reorganization  and  ex- 
pansion, 263-264. 

Sewing,  instruction  in,  in  elementary 
schools,  230-232;  in  high  schools, 
245;  taught  in  neighborhood  schools, 
276. 

Sex,  influence  of,  in  determining  group- 
ing of  pupils,  198-199. 

Shop  equipment  and  its  distribution, 
in  industrial  work  in  high  schools, 
^  243-244. 

Sites  for  schools  in  Portland,  problem 
of,  283  ff.,  305-307;  recent  outlays 
for,  286-288;  size  of  school  lots,  291- 

293- 

Slates,  use  of,  in  schools,  334. 

Social  position  of  Portland,  91-111. 

Spelling,  a  tool  subject,  not  an  end  in 
itself,  116-117. 

Stammerers,  special  classes  for,  365. 

State,  origin  of  Portland  schools  with 
the,  3-4;  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages of  control  of  schools  by  the,  6-7. 

Studying  to  be  done  by  teachers,  67. 

Stuttering  children,  special  treatment 
of,  365- 

Subnormal  children,  segregation  of, 
198. 

Summer  schools,  development  of,  116, 
122,  268. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  office  of ,  1 1 ; 
organization  of  educational  depart- 
ment under,  14-16;  relation  to 
Board  of  School  Directors,  23-25;  re- 


440 


Index 


lation  of  School  Clerk  to,  25-26; 
proper  position  of,  in  school  organi- 
zation, 26-29;  ill  effects  on  system  of 
supervision  of  subordination  of,  to 
Board  of  Directors,  38-39;  com- 
pared with  School  Clerk,  as  to  au- 
thority and  liberty  of  action,  42; 
desirability  of  employment  of  teach- 
ers by,  59-61. 

Supervision,  system  of,  in  Portland 
school  district,  34  ft.;  sources  and 
methods  of  work  of,  34-35;  source 
of  weakness  of  system,  35-36;  full 
efficiency  not  realized  under  present 
conditions,  37-38;  results  of  promi- 
nence of  Board  of  Directors  and  sub- 
ordination of  Superintendent,  assist- 
ant superintendents,  and  principals, 
38-39;  characteristics  of  a  good  or- 
ganization, 39-40;  rules  and  regu- 
lations of  system,  41;  illustration  of 
control  by  Board  of  Directors,  42- 
46;  responsibility  for  condition,  46- 
47;  needed  changes,  47-53. 

Supervisory  officers,  number  employed, 

S3- 

Supplementary  readers,  need  for,  160. 
Supplies,  lack  of,  in  elementary  schools, 
160-162. 

Tax,  as  a  means  of  paying  for  school 
buildings,  300-303. 

Teachers,  control  of,  by  Board  of  Di- 
rectors, 42-44;  selection  of,  53  ff.; 
recruitment  and  training,  54-56; 
training  courses  for,  56-57;  training 
vs.  attracting,  58-59;  employment  of, 
by  Superintendent,  59-61;  effect  of 
selection  by  Board  of  School  Direc- 
tors, 61-63;  good  rules  for  selection, 
promotion,  and  retention  of,  63-67; 
study  to  be  expected  of,  67;  tenure 
of,  67  ff.;  the  permanent-tenure  law, 
67-69;  right  principles  of  action  as 
to  tenure,  71-74;  salary  schedules, 
75-77;  character  of  corps  of,  in  Port- 
land, 80-81;  payment  of,  according 
to  merit  and  efficiency,  81-87; 
deadening  effect  of  present  educa- 
tional system  on,  154-160;  quality 
of,  in  high  schools,  165;  sympathetic 


study  of  children  by,  178;  responsi- 
bilities of,  in  carrying  out  ideal  edu- 
cational program,  219-220;  for 
intermediate  schools,  258;  reasons 
for  opposition  of,  to  intermediate 
schools,  259;  part  of,  in  health  su- 
pervision, 354-355;  health  of,  360- 
361. 

Technical  education,  needs  of,  in  such 
a  city  as  Portland,  120-121. 

Technical  high  school,  merging  of 
School  of  Trades  into,  advocated, 
245-247. 

Temperature  of  classrooms,  322-323. 

Tenure  of  teachers,  67-74. 

Textbooks,  lack  of  suitable,  in  elemen- 
tary schools,  1 60. 

Toilets,  ventilation  of,  327;  recom- 
mendations concerning,  320-332. 

Tool  subjects  in  education,  teaching  of, 
116-117. 

Trades,  study  of,  in  pre-vocational 
courses,  213;  instruction  in,  in  night 
high  schools,  272. 

Training  courses  for  teachers,  56-57; 
common  defects  of,  57-58. 

Truancy,  treatment  of  problem  of, 
266-268;  records  of  truant  officer, 
386-389. 

Truant  schools,  266-268. 

Truants,  special  classes  for,  369. 

Tubercular  children,  need  of  special 
classes  for,  119. 

Tuberculosis  among  school  children, 
355-358.  See  Open-air  schools. 

Ungraded  rooms,  need  for,  264-266. 

Uniformity,  deadening  effects  of,  of 
curriculum  of  elementary  schools, 
127,  130,  134;  found  in  curriculum 
of  all  high  schools,  169-171;  of  cur- 
riculum in  high  schools  a  barrier  to 
progress,  169-171;  carried  to  ex- 
tremes in  the  high  schools,  238. 

Uniform  salary  schedule  for  teachers, 
78-80. 

Unit  system  of  school  buildings,  296. 

Urinals,  ventilation  of,  327;  recom- 
mendations concerning,  329-332. 

Usefulness,  fitting  for,  the  purpose  of 
all  public  instruction,  194-195. 


Index 


441 


Vacation  schools,  needed  reorganiza- 
tion and  expansion,  268-269. 
Vacuum  cleaners  for  school  buildings, 

332-333- 

Ventilation  of  school  buildings,  325- 
328. 

Vocal  music,  instruction  in,  in  inter- 
mediate period,  211. 

Vocational  courses  and  studies,  116, 
120,  215-216;  in  secondary  schools, 
238-247. 


Vocational  work,  logical  development 
of,  by  the  intermediate  school,  256. 

Weaving  of  rugs,  in  the  neighborhood 
schools,  276. 

Windows  of  school  buildings,  recom- 
mendations concerning,  307-313. 

Witmer,  Lightner,  The  Special  Class, 
cited,  367. 

Writing,  to  be  viewed  as  a  tool  subject, 
116-117. 


School  Efficiency  Series 

Edited  by  PAUL  H.  HANUS,  of  Harvard  University 


"  One  of  the  most  noteworthy  undertakings  in  professional  education  of 
the  century." — PROFESSOR  C.  H.  JOHNSTON,  University  of  Illinois. 


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Administration.  Cloth,  $1.50 

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